TEXT PROBLEM
WITHIN THE
BOOK ONLY
%>
m< OU_1 60073 >m
=5 co
OUP 24 M-69 5.0CO
bSMANIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
Author
This book should be returned on or before the date last marked below.
THE
TRAVANCORE
TRIBES AND CASTES
VOLUME III
THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE
BY
L. A. KRISHNA IYER, M. A.
Officer in charge of Ethnographic Survey
with a Foreword by
The Hon'ble C. P. SKRINE, O. B. E., I. C. S.,
Resident, Punjab States
and an Introduction by
R. R. M ARETT, M. A., D. So., D. Litt., LL. D., F. B. A.,
Rector, Exeter College, Oxford.
Trivandrum :
Printed by the Superintendent, Government Press ,
1941
DEDICATED
TO
SACHIVOTTAMA
SIR C. P. RAMASWAM! AIYAR,
K. C.S. I., K. C. I.E..LL.D..
DEWAN OF TRAVANCORE
AS A TOKEN OF
GRATITUDE AND ESTEEM
PREFACE
The author has been privileged, during a
period of over a quarter of a century's service
in the Forest Administration of Travancore, to
enjoy unusual opportunities of meeting the jungle
tribes of the State. From his very first contacts
with them they aroused in him a deep and abiding
interest and a desire to know more and more of their
social life and problems. The inner life of the jungle
reveals itself to those who linger lovingly amidst
its shadows; and the author's sojournings among
the tribes led him to study their customs, manners
and social institutions.
Travancore is unique in that it includes among
its population some of the most primitive tribes
of the peninsula, tribes in some cases less changed
perhaps by external influences than those of any
other part of India. The purpose of the first two
volumes of the Travancore Tribes and Castes was
to set out the factual material gathered during
prolonged residence and research among the tribes.
The primary object was to present as true a picture
as possible of the jungle tribes, a life apparently
simple to the casual observer, but reflecting in
essentials all the fundamental problems facing,
though not solved by, so called civilized man, such
as those of food-production, family, social, moral
and religious life.
IV
The task of the social investigator here is not
always easy; he has to resist the temptation to
record facts which might appear to him at the
time more important and to overlook those which
might not do so. Westermarck, referring to his
experience in his enquiries on the science of human
society, says how "a fact which at first may have
seemed a trifle not worthy of attention, has later
shed the most unexpected light over the origin of
the development of some important institution. "
The author's first two volumes have attempted
to present in a systematic manner the data collected
through personal investigations and intensive
studies for over a decade. He has endeavoured to
present an unvarnished account of the life and
institutions of the jungle tribes in a scientific temper
which insists on accuracy of statement and fidelity
tc facts.
The real meaning and significance of factual
data can be understood only when they are cor-
related to, and interpreted in the light of, known
facts. The accounts of the jungle tribes cannot
be complete without some knowledge as to their
parent stock and racial origins, their collateral
branches and distribution. This part of the story
is one of theoretical reconstruction which calls
for speculation and interpretation. Scholars like
Keane, Haddon, Button and Eickstedt have made
notable contributions in this direction. The present
volume 'THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE'
contains the conclusions of the author on the study
of the tribes to which Blood-grouping studies have
yielded additional evidence. It attempts an inter-
pretative glimpse of the inner life of the tribes
who have now come under civilizing influences.
It gives an exposition of primitive culture in all
its aspects; a study whose importance has not
received adequate recognition. In the opening
address with which Westermarck, as Vice-Chan-
cellor, prefaced the work of the Abo Academy,
he said, "Not so long ago there was a generally
current idea that the manners and customs of
savage tribes could at most only be of interest as
curiosities, and their study was scarcely looked
upon as a science. And yet what an extraordinarily
useful influence this study has exercised in the last
few decades on the history of law, the science of
religion, moral psychology, and sociology in general J
It has, amongst other things, taught us to what a
large extent civilized man still preserves the customs
and ideas of savages in his institutions, in entire
ignorance that he is so doing; for a nation's customs
are like balls that seem to roll by their own impetus
on through the centuries, and often it is only the
study of primitive races that can give us a notion
of the push that set the ball in motion. "* The
author therefore feels grateful that he has been
enabled to present a true and complete picture of
the primitive culture of the State for posterity,
for foreign influences are, according to Dr. Marett,
obliterating the old landmarks like a rising tide;
and unless these are charted at once, mere guesswork
must alone serve to recall them. "There is every
* Weslerrnarok, Memories of My Life, pp. 279-280,
VI
reason why human nature should be known to
everybody; and the wise State will see to it that
it is known Ignorance must go, especially ignpr-
ance of that which is now known about life which
must be known to live soundly and sanely."* " Every
people, every tribe, however little advanced in its
stage of development, represents a certain psychic
type or pattern. The interests of humanity require
that every type should be assisted and educated to
its adequate expression and development. No race
lives to itself and no race dies to itself, "f
Tliis book is of necessity brief. The danger
of brevity is seeming dogmatism; but the author
has avoided the dogmatic spirit and discussed the
problems without bias or passion. He cannot be
sufficiently grateful to the Government of His High-
ness the Maharaja Sri Chitra Thirunal for. the
stimulus given to anthropological research; nor
can he adequately express his indebtedness to
Dr. Sachivottama Sir C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar for
his personal interest and encouragement for giving
a new reorientation to his work. The publication
puts a coping stone on the study of the tribes.
The author takes this opportunity of express-
ing his deep gratitude to the Hon'ble C. P. Skrine,
formerly Resident in Travancore, for his appreci-
ative Foreword, and to Dr. R. R. Marett, Rector of
Exeter College, Oxford, for his valuable Introduc-
tion. To Dr. J . H. Cousins he is very thankful for
* Dorsey, G A., The Nature of Man, p. 102.
tlidhakmhuaa, S , Tho Hinriu View of Life, p. 95.
vu
going through the typescript. His courtesy and
helpfulness have been among the amenities of the
labours of the author. He is much indebted to
Mr. M. K. Nilakanta Aiyar, Chief Secretary to
Government, for help received in the various stages
of the publication. He is also under obligations to
Eao Bahadur T. V. Venkateswara Ayyar for going
through a portion of the letterpress of the volume.
Lastly, his thanks are due to Mr. P . E. Mathew,
Superintendent, Government Press, and his staff
for the neat printing of the volume.
Karamanai, Trivandrum, L. A. KBISHNA IYBB.
21st- October 1940.
FOREWORD
BY
THE HOISTBLE C. P. SKRINE, O. B. E., I. C. S.,
RESIDENT. PUNJAB STATES
FOREWORD
Travancore is to be congratulated on setting
an example to the States of India in furthering
the cause of pure science. Anthropological and
ethnological research, though useful to the
administration, is of little direct economic value
to a State. But in assessing the culture of a
people it is the imponderables that count ; and
the maintenance of a well equipped Ethnological
Survey by the Government of His Highness Sir
Bala Rama Varma is one of many outward and
visible signs of Travancore's inward and spiritual
enlightenment.
No better choice than Mr. L. A. Krishna
Iyer, son of that distinguished anthropologist
Dewan Bahadur Dr. L. K. Ananthakrishna
Iyer, could have been made for the direction of
Fravancore's ethnological survey. His industry
is monumental, his activity in the field unflagging,
his style scholarly and lucid. In this volume Mr.
Iyer discusses the conclusions to be drawn from
the mass of material set forth in his two volumes
on " The Travancore Tribes and Castes "
already published. It is not for a mere layman to
comment on the theoretical results of Mr. Iyer's
xu
labours ; but I shall be surprised if informed
criticism does not place " The Aborigines of
Travancore " in the front rank of India's con-
tributions to that science which deals with
mankind's proper study-man himself.
Lahore, C. P. SKRINE.
2nd February 1940.
C O N T U N T S.
PAOT.
Author 's Preface . . iii
Foreword by C. P. Skriiie . . xi
J^ist of Illustrations . . . . xv
Introduction by R. E. Marett . . xix
CHAP.
Introduction Geographical Distribu-
tion of the Primitive Tribes Popula-
tion Effect of Geographical Envi-
ronment Anthropometry in India
Aiithropoinetric data in 1931 Census
Indefinite Characters Colour,
Hair Definite Characters Stature,
Shape of the head, Nasal Index . . 1
II. TRADITIONS
Introductory Kaiiikkar Mutluivan
Maniiaii Paliyan Vishavaii Con-
clusion . . . . 21
III. RACIAL AFFINITIES
Early Views on Racial Origins Thur-
stoii Ruggeri Eicksteclt Hutton
the Negrito Element in Travancore
Proto Australoid Conclusion . . 31
IV. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS
Introductory Purpose of Megalithic
Monuments Dolmen Types of Dol-
men Menhir Age of Megalithic
Monuments Significance of Dolmens
Conclusions . . 50
V. DOMESTIC LIFE
Clothing and Decoration Mutilations
and Deformities Food-quest
Production of Fire .Habitations
Furniture and Utensils Weapons
and Tools . . . . 64
VI. EXOGAMY
Introductory Malapantaram Ka-
nikkar Muthuvan Vishavaii
Urali Mannan Malayarayan Ma-
la vetaii Malankuravan Ullatan
Pulaya Paraya Views on Exogamy 76
CHAP. PAGE.
VII. MABEIAGE
Introductory Forms of Marriage
Cousin-marriage Monogamy Poly-
gamy Polyandry Levirate and So-
rorate Widow Marriage Pre-
puberty coition Marriage Ceremo-
nies Adultery Influence of
Civilization . . . . 93
VIII, TABOO
Introductory Puberty Customs
Menstruation Child-birth Relation
of Taboo to Agriculture Conclusion. 107
IX. INHERITANCE AND SOCIAL ORGANISATION
Importance of Survival Inheritance
of widow Social Organization
Malapantaram Kanikkar Muthu-
van Manuan Malayarayan
Urali Paliyan Pulaya Paraya . . 118
X. THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD
Introductory Malapaiitaram MH-
thuvan Urali Paliyan Malaya-
rayan Kanikkar Malavotan
Nayfidi Conclusion . . . . 129
XL RELIGION
Definition of Religion Animism
Worship of the Sun Ancestor Spirits
Village Deities Hunting Spirits
Tramp Spirits Influence of Hinduism 138
XII. OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE
General Migratory Cultivation
Terraced Cultivation Effect of Clash
of Culture Population Problems
Remedies of Depopulation . . 149
INDEX . . . . . . . . 165
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . 175
LIST OF MAP, ILLUSTRATIONS AND CHARTS
To face Page
1 Map of Travancore showing tribal distribution
2 A View of Urali Hamlet showing their culti-
vation ... 5
3 A Malapulaya male group to show high stature.. 6
4 Urali Male (curly hair) ... 13
5 Urali Female, Front and Profile
6 A Muthuvan Male, Front and Profile ... 15
7 A Muthuvan Female, Front and Profile
8 A Paliyan Male, Front and Profile ... 17
9 A Paliyan Female, Front and Profile
10 A Malapantaram Male, Front and Profile ... 18
1 1 A Malapantaram Female, Front and Profile
12 A Kanikkaran Male Group ... 21
13 A Muthuvan Male Group ... 25
14 .A Mannan Male Group ... 25
15 A Urali Male Group ... 26
16 A Pali} an Male Group ... 28
17 A Vishavan Male Group ... 28
18 A Malavetan Male, Front and Profile ... 35
19 A Malavetan Female, Front and Profile
20 A Malapulaya Male, Front and Profile ... 35
21 A Malapulaya Female, Front and Profile
22 A Kanapulaya Male, Front and Profile ... 40
23 A Kanapulaya Female, Front and Profile
24 A Sambavar Male, Front and Profile ... 47
25 A Sambavar Female, Front and Profile
26 A view of Dolmen area in Anjanad ... 51
27 A view of typical Dolmens in Anjanad ... 54
28 A Dolmen showing coursed masonry over the
cover slab 54
29 A Dolmen in Rani Reserve ... 54
30 A Thantapulaya Female group in their primi"
live costume 65
31 A Malavetan chipping the incisor teeth ... 66
32 A Malavetan woman showing the chipped teeth 66
XVI
To face Page
33 A Vishavan woman showing dilated car lobes... 67
34 A Kanikkaran woman with strings of beads round
her neck ... 67
35 A Paliyan woman preparing ragi ... 68
36 A Kanikkaran making fire by hand-drill ... 69
37 A Muthuvan making fire by flint and steel ... 70
38 Urali Tree-House ... 72
39 A Muthuvan Bachelor-Hall ... 72
40 A Kanapulaya Hut showing seclusion shed
41 Muthuvan weapons and implements ... 73
42 A Kanikkaran at his bow ... 73
43 A Kanikkaran at his pellet bow ... 74
44 A Muthuvan blowing his blow- pipe ... 74
45 A Vishavan spearing fish ... 75
46 A Muthuvan Bamboo comb ... 104
47 A Thantapulaya puberty ceremony ... 110
48 Mel-Vaka ... 124
49 Malayarayan Headman ... 125
50 Perumparayan 127
51 A Muthuvan temple . 140
52 A Malapulaya temple ... 140
53 A Kanikkaran divining cause of malady with
stones ... 142
54 A Kanikkaran at his Kokra ... 142
55 A miniature Dolmen of the Malayarayan . 141
56 Madan ... 144
57 A Kanikkar paddy flat at Neduvangad" ... 149
58 Terraced cultivation of the Muthuvan in Anjanad 151
59 A Malapantaram climbing a tree for gathering
honey ... 151
60 A Pulaya ploughing the field ... 151
61 Paraya industry ... 152
62 Thantapulaya women with their fishing outfit .. 152
CHARTS
1 Distribution of Stature ... 5 Sheets
2 Distribution of Cephalic Index ... 6 Sheets
3 Distribution of Nasal Index ... 5 Sheets
INTRODUCTION
BY
R. R. MARETT, \M. A.. D. Sc.. D. LITT.. LL. D., F. B. A,
RECTOR, EXETER COLLEGE, OXFORD.
INTEODUCTION
If Indians are to enjoy their heritage of culture,
they must first take the pains to understand it.
No doubt they are emotionally in touch with its
underlying principles, and in that respect start
with a great advantage over the European scholar.
But the intellectual approach to an appreciation of
its meaning calls not only for enthusiasm but for
method. If science is to take the place of mere
mythology, the historical facts must be critically
mastered, and interpretation must conform with
the rules of evidence. It is just because it is so
hard to be honest about oneself and one's own
affairs that autobiography is not always to be
trusted ; and yet it is obvious that, if he could and
would bear impartial witness to the truth about his
own life-history, no one else is in a position to
compete with the individual himself in respect to
that most illuminating form of knowledge which
we know as insight. Just so India needs, and can
by due preparation achieve, insight into its own
ethnic individuality, so that its future self -develop-
ment may be led to afford full expression to the
native genius.
This does not mean that India must isolate
herself from foreign influences, like some ascetic
who turns his back on the world. The greatest
XX
nations are those which have borrowed most. But
to borrow fruitfully a people must assimilate. In
other words, its force of inborn character must b/e
such that, in taking over fresh ideas and customs,
it does so selectively and in strict accordance with
its natural bent. What we call race is a potenti-
ality involving a destiny that may turn out to be
happy or unhappy according as a right or a wrong
education conditions the ripening process. India,
then, must educate herself on broader lines if she
is to prove her aptitude for the highest civilization
and her capacity to make her own specific contri-
bution thereto. Already her best minds are agreed
that she can afford to be less conservative and more
constructive or reconstructive in her effort to
do her best for herself and for the world.
India is a land of sharp contrasts geogra-
phical, Komatological, cultural. Truly, it takes all
sorts to make a sub-continent. Such diversity is all
to the good if it be subordinated to a unity consist-
ing not merely in a political but in a spiritual bond.
India indeed has always had due regard for the
things of the spirit, and ought therefore to be
able to draw on her inner resources for the
requisite ideal that can draw the inhabitants of
India together and make them one in heart. How
this is to be brought about it is hardly for me to
suggest. Clearly, for one thing, the illiteracy of
tlie masses must be overcome. My personal experi-
ence, however, has been entirely confined to the
student class, or rather to its picked representatives
who find their way to Oxford and there make excel-
lent use of their talents. Now I have been frequently
XXI
struck in talking with these able young men about
India how little they know about their own country
an<^ its inhabitants, apart from their own home-
quarters and home-circle. But thus to conceive
universal India in domestic terms is to abandon all
attempt to comprehend it. The science of forestry
cannot be contained in a flower-pot.
That this stay-at-home attitude of mind is
morally no less than intellectually cramping I have
no doubt. Indeed, I would go so far as to say that
it is a sign of spiritual backwardness to shun alien
contacts, implying as it does a lack of the self-con-
fidence needed in order to meet and overcome the
unknown. The vision of a larger India, in which
mutual suspicion has been replaced by a free com-
panionship in the pursuit of a common good, de-
mands above all else a certain spaciousness of out-
look. If the campaign is to begin auspiciously,
the imagination must first be fired; and, to bring
this about, the study of anthropology can do much,
seeing that its scope is as comprehensive as that
of all the humanities taken together.
For what a spectacle is provided of the progress
of mankind, from the hunting stage upwards, by
India, living India, containing here and now types
of culture known to Europe only as archaeological
ghosts. Indeed, the present work, with its wealth
of accurate observation, is chiefly concerned with
such humble folk, still dependent on the more or
less untamed jungle for their sparse subsistence,
and attached to the higher civilization only in so
far as it provides them with a few luxuries for
example, lucifer matches as a substitute for the
primeval fire^stick. "And of what use are these
people ?" someone may be inclined to say. I de-
precate such a question, because it might be turtied
on the questioner on oneself, in fact. At any
rate it makes for charity to regard every human
being as an end in himself. Nay, climatically
India is capable of mothering a more miscellaneous
brood than hungrier and less diversified lands can
ever hope to do; so that an Indian ought to learn
to rejoice in the sheer diversity of the population
for which an all-embracing civilization must in
the fulness of time be worked out, so as to preserve
all that is most characteristic of the true India.
For the moment, however, all that I venture
to commend to the braver spirits taming the young
men of India is that they should pay more attention
to the study of their own country, employing
scientific methods so as to extend their historical
survey to its widest limits. For this breadth of
outlook is what anthropology tries to achieve.
Human history is not especially concerned with
the civilized man. All of us alike are anthropolo-
gical specimens; nor is the title of Homo sapiens
reserved for those who can sport university degrees.
The so-called savage the "man of the woods,"
as the word literally means is likewise a fellow-
creature, with a mental constitution much the same
as ours in all essentials. Here, then, is the oppor-
tunity for a moral experiment. Can you, with the
aid of scientific imagination, put yourself in his
place? So far as you can, sympathy is bound
to ensue; and not only in India but throughout the
wcgrld sympathy, as also the charity which is its
practical expression, is the mark of the man as he
emerges from the beast.
Exeter College, E. E. MABETT.
Oxford.
A View of Urali Hamlet showing their cultivation.
THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Travaucore forms the south-westernmost part
of the Deccan and bears the impact of all the racial
migrations in the Deccan. It is bounded by the
Western Ghats on the east and the Arabian sea on
the west. Its total length from north to south
is 174 miles, and its width from east to west is 75
miles in the northern boundary and 30 miles at the
southern extremity. It has an area of 7,625 square
miles. It presents a remarkable diversity of physi-
cal conditions and may be broadly divided into three
distinct belts, each having its own characteristic
soil^ rainfall, vegetation, and cultivation. These
are the Highlands, the Midlands, and the Lowlands.
The Highland division contains a long range of
mountains with fertile fields at the foot covered
mostly with thick evergreen forests. Most of the
reserved forests are in this division, and the por-
tions let out for cultivation are covered with rubber,
tea, and cardamoms. The rainfall ranges from 100
inches annually in the south to more than 200
inches in the north. This region is most sparsely
populated. The Midland division is higher in ele-
vation than the Lowland. The soil is fertile and
the rainfall varies from 55 to 140 inches per annum.
The Lowland region has a rainfall varying from
35 inches in the south to 110 inches in the north,
G.P.T. LINO. '105. 250. 15-10-1115,
B
THE ABORIGINES OF TfcAVANCOBE [VoL. HI.
Practically, the- whole area has been brought under
cultivation.
Geographical Distribution of Ihv Primitive Tribes.
The Highland region forms the home of the
underuotcd tribes :
1. Kanikkar in the forests of A^ilavancode,
Neyyattinkara, Nedumangad, Pathanapuram,
Shencotta, and Kottarakara Taluqs.
2. The Malapantfirams scattered in the higher
reaches of the Pamba and Aehcncoil rivers,
and at Thalapara and Kannupalli of the
Khencotta Taluq.
o. The Malavetans wJio are found both in the
Midland and the Highland divisions in the
taluqs of Pathanamthitta, Pathanapuram,
Nedumangad, Chirayinkil, and Neyyattin-
kara.
4. The Malankuravans who arc found in the
various parts of the State in the Highland
and Midland divisions.
5. The tJralis in the Pirmede and Thodupuzha
taluqs.
(5. The Paliyans in the Pirmede taluq.
7. The Mannans on the Cardamom Hills to
the south of the Panniyar river in the Pirmede
and Dcvikulam taluqs.
8. The Muthuvaus on the Kannan Devan and
Cardamom Hills in the High Range Division.
9. The Malapuluyas in Anjanad of Devikulam
taluq.
III.] INTRODUCTION
10. The Vislmvans in the Idyara valley of North
Travancore.
The Midland region forms the home of the
undernoted tribes :
1. The Malayarayans in the Rani Reserved
forest of Changanaseri taluq, and Minachil,
and Thodupuzha taluqs.
2. The Ullatans in the Rani Reserved forests in
the Highland region and in various parts of
the Midland region.
3. The Paraya found in the Thovala, Agastis-
waram, Eraniel, Kuimathur, and Kunnathu-
nad taluqs and on the Cardamom Hills.
4. The Pulayas in all the taluqs to the north
of Nanjanad.
5. The Nayadis in the Karunagapalli taluq and
in North Travancore.
In the Lowland region, the Thantapulayas and
other subdivisions of the Pulayas are found.
Population
The primitive tribes were returned in the
census of 1931 as 1,28,838 of whom 1,15,151 were
Hindus, 10,780 Christians, and 2,907 belonging to
tribal religions. Inclusive of the Parayas and the
Pulayas, 3,93,172 were Hindu, 2,40,273 Christian,
and 2,907 belonged to tribal religion. A comparison
of the figures at different censuses demonstrates
a process of rapid Hinduization taking place among
these primitive tribes. The number of animists
returned in 3901 was 28,193. This went down to
15,773 in 1911, to 12,637 in 1921, and to 2,097 in 1931.
THE ABORIGINES OP TRAVANCORE
HI.
The inference drawn from these figures is that
the animists are being depleted and that the number^
they lose go over chiefly to Hinduism, and to a
small extent to Christianity. "The opening of a
large number of estates in forest regions has
provided facilities for their coming in contact with
the people of the plains. Some of the tribes are
coming down to the plains to earn their livelihood.
In this way as well as by the penetration of civilized
man in the forests, the primitive tribes are being
brought under the influence of the Hindus and the
Christian missionaries."* A statement of their
population as they stood in 1931 is given in Table I.
TABLE I.
No.
Name of Tribe.
Hind n H.
Chris-
tians
Tribal
Religion .
Total.
1
Kanikkaran
4,565
53
2,041
6,659
2
Kuravan
87,071
8,158
66
95,295
3
Malankuti (Vishavan)
166
...
...
16
-i
Ma la pan ta ram
100
...
87
187
5
Malapulayan
254
...
...
254
6
Mala-Urali
846
...
70
916
7
Malayarayan
2,807
255
120
3,182
8
Mannau
1,215
i ...
61
1,276
9
Muthuvan
1,238
"...
63
1-301
10
Navadi
144
...
...
144
11
Pal'iyan
379
23
81
483
12
Para} a (Sambavar)
70,684
71,680
...
142,364
13
Pulaya
2,07,387
1,67,813
365,150
Than tapu lava
795
...
795
14
Ullatan
4,824
220
77
5,121
15
Malavetan en
Vettnvan
9,496
1,251
2,060
241
71
11-737
Ii329
* N. Kunjan Piilai, Tho Travancore Census Report, 1931, Part 1,
p,387.
VOX*. HI.J JtfTKODTJOTION
Effect of Geographical Environment
9
The geographical conditions of Travancore aro
such that the primitive tribes have had to live in
regions of plenty today and poverty tomorrow.
"Not because they originated here, but they were
driven here by past climatic changes and migrations,
remained here and stagnated here."* Of all the
tribes, the Malapantarams, the Muthuvans, and the
tJralis have been least affected by outside influences.
The remaining tribes have been subject to extra-
neous influences, and have therefore received an
infusion of foreign blood and new ideas from the
more civilized people with, whom they have come
into contact. This is clearly seen in the Vishavan,
the Ullatan, the Paliyan, the Malayarayan, the
Mannan and the Kanikkaran. Owing to the admix-
ture of foreign blood, these tribes are now approa-
ching the composite type of civilized humanity.
Climate determines the crop that man can
grow in a locality. The Mannan, the Muthuvan,
the Paliyan, and the Malapulaya who live at an
altitude of 2,000 to 5,000 feet culivate ragi; while
the Kanikkaran, the Malayarayan, the Ullatan, the
Vishavan, and others who live on lower elevations
cultivate paddy and tapioca. Where climate favours
the growth of forests, it prolongs the hunter stage
of development and retards the advance to agri-
culture. The Malapantaram is the only tribe in
Travancore still in the hunter stage.
* Qridith Taylor Race and Environment, p. 178.
THE ABOKIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. III.
The salubrity of high altitudes is favourable
to human development. This is exemplified in fte
Muthuvaris, the Mannans, the Paliyans, the Uralis,
the Malapulayas, and the Malapantarams. Their
well-developed lungs, massive chests, and larg^
torsos are due to the influence of the rarefied air
at the high altitude at which they live. The average
chest girth of the primitive tribes is given in
Table II. Those on high altitudes evince, however,
TABLE II.
No.
Namo of Tribo
Average circuinforeno- 1 -
of chest in Cms.
I
Kanikkaran
74'8
2
Malankuti (Vishavan)
77'2
3
Malapautaram
77*6
4
iVialapulavaii
78*0
5
Mala-Urali
75*5
G
Malayarayau
77'3
7
Mai man
75'8
8
Muthuvaii
77'1
a
Nayadi
75*5
10
Paliyan
75-0
a
Paraya (8amlavnr)
78'2
12
Puiaya
75'5
13
Tbaiitapulaya
76'8
14
Ullatan
73 8
15
Mala v eta. n
74-0
16
Malankuravan
73-8
an aversion to muscular effort. "As atmospheric
pressure diminishes perceptably at high altitudes,
atmospheric oxygen combines with blood corpus-
cles in the lungs more slowly. According to trust-
worthy observations, sluggishness and dislike of
Urali I^ale (curly hair)
VOL. III.] INTBODUCTIOK
prolonged effort, muscular or otherwise, is the
consequence of the slowing down of the blood."*
The alleged backwardness of dwellers in tropical
countries is said to be due to excessive heat. "The
actinic rays of the sun arc believed to stimulate
the cells to greater activity when they fail on the
human body. At first it is beneficial, if it goes on
to excess, the cells apparently break down."t
Intense heat of long duration, combined with a
high degree of humidity, is unfavourable to human
development. It brings about enervation and in-
creases a craving for stimulants which induces
habits of alcoholism. The Kanikkar, the Ullatan, the
Vishavan, and the Malavetan are marked examples
of devitalization caused by tropical climate. Fur-
ther, malaria is a disease of tropical and sub-tropical
countries, whose climate is characterised by alter-
nate wet and dry seasons. A people devitalised
by this disease cannot be expected to be energetic
and active. The sluggishness of the Kanikkaran,
the Vishavan, and the Ullatan who live in malaria-
striken areas is due to the baneful effect of this
disease.
- Anthropometric Work in India
Anthropometry was introduced into India by
Sir Herbert Eisley in his Ethnographic Survey of
Bengal. This was the first attempt to apply to
Indian Ethnography the methods of systematic re-
search sanctioned by the authority of European
* Vidal clc Blache, p. The Principles* of Human Geography, p. 173.
t Seniple, E. The Influence of Geographical Environment* p, 624
THE ABORIGINES OJ? TBAVANCOBE [VoL. III.
anthropologists. Among these methods the mea-
surements of physical characters occupy a promi-
nent place. " No where else in the world do wg find
the population of a large continent broken up into
an infinite number of exclusive aggregates, the
members of which are forbidden by the inexorable
social law to marry outside the group to which
they themselves belong. Whatever may have been
the origin of an earlier development of caste, the
absolute prohibition of mixed marriages stands
forth now as its most essential and prominent cha-
racteristic, and the feeling against such unions is
deeply engrained. In a society putting an extrava-
gant value .011 the pride of blood and the idea of
ceremonial purity, differences of physical type may
be expected to manifest a high degree of persis-
tence."*
Travniicore is one of the States in India in
which caste has been most elaborately developed,
and the foregoing remarks fit it with special
aptness. According to Risley, the analysis of
data collected by him among 81) tribes and castes
in Bengal and the United Provinces of Agra and
Oudh rendered it possible to distinguish three
types, the Aryan, the Mongolian, and the Dravidian.
This classification was, at the time, accepted by
Flower, Beddoe, and Haddon in England, and
Topiuard in France. Many additions have since
been made to the number of measurements on
living subjects by Thurston, Holland, Eickstedt,
* Bisley Tho People of India, p. 24.
VOL. III.] INTRODUCTION
Cipriani, Macfarlane, and by the writer in Travan-
core. Bisley's work remains and forms the ' key-
stone of anthropological research in India'. The
census report of 1901 laid the foundations on which
has been since based all work that lias been done on
the racial composition of India. The results of such
work during the last thirty years have so far
changed the whole complexion of the problem that
a restatement of the whole position is now required,
and his conclusions now require revision. He reco-
gnized three main racial types of India, the Dra-
vidiau, the Judo-Aryan arid the Turko-Iraiiian, the
latter of which was confined to the North- West
Frontier, and the two former of which were modi-
fied by two subsidiary elements, the Scythian and
Mongolian respectively, by introducing the brachy-
cephajic elements in Eastern and Western India.
According to Dr. Hutton, "Rislcy's deductions were
coloured by an erroneous belief in the racial com-
position of India. In any case, it is necessary to
clear the deck by throwing overboard some of his
deductions. The Dravidian, as conceived by him,
has been the first to go, and has been replaced by
at least three races, where they recognized only
one."* ...,.;}
Anthropometric Data in 1931 Census Report
In the census of India for 1931, Vol. I, Part III,
Dr. Hutton presents a mass of anthropometric data
gathered by Dr. Gruha. This is said to be engaging
* Hutton, The Census of India 1 931, 1. Part I, p. 440.
10 THE ABORIGINES Otf TRAVANCOKE [VoL. III.
the attention of experts in England. According to
Mr. Enthoven, "Dr. Guha's method presents con-
siderable difficulty to the ordinary reader owing to
its very intricate mathematical form of presentation.
We are given to understand at the beginning of
Dr. Guha's report that racial discrimination must
be based on the entire somatic constitution of
peoples, especially when the data are limited to
a few characters a simple numerical measure of
all the differences is therefore required to show
the degree of resemblance or divergence of two races
or tribes compared."* Mr. Enthoven also records,
that the results of anthropometrical observations
recorded in India up to date have been on the whole
disappointing, and that the conclusion, which many
scholars are apt to arrive at, after considering
the data recorded in this connection, is that, on
the whole, more progress is likely to be made in
tracing racial origins in India from a careful com-
parison and examination of the contents of heads
rather than by measuring their outsides.* Again,
Professor Hodson says, "Though the method of
Coefficient of Racial Likeness is without doubt the
best available criterion of racial divergence, it is
nevertheless not an absolute test, but only a rough
measure of how far on the given data a significant
resemblance or divergence can be asserted. In
assigning an equal value to every one of the charac-
ters, it furthermore neglects the differences in the
* Enthovon, R, E. Tke PHhnographic Surrey of India published
in the Jubilee Volume of the Bombay Anthropological
Society 1938, pp. 59-61.
' ' 1
ul
VOL. III.] INTRODUCTION 11
relative biological significance of the various charac-
ters as measures of racial difference. Other factors
such as the systematic observations of non-measur-
able characters should therefore be duly consi-
dered. 7 '* Measurements made on individuals be-
longing to a race or tribe show definite results
characteristic of the group. But the question of
detecting racial differences based on such character-
istics is by no means easy. A detailed analysis of
the measurements from the statistical point of view
has to be made. On an analysis of the means,
variances, and co-variances, the statistician can
assert whether the differences between the groups
are significant or not. Such an intensive study is
beyond the scope of the present paper and the
treatment is limited to a formal application of the
fundamental principle that differences between
characters are significant if this be greater than two
and a half times the standard deviation.
The material available for the determination
of the racial elements and affinities of the Indian
peoples may be divided into physical, linguistic, and
cultural features. According to Sir William Fowler
physical characters are the best, in fact, the only
true tests of race, that is of real affinity; language,
customs, and others may help or give indications,
but they are often misleading. It was Sir Henry
Maine who first said that the study of the sacred
languages of India has given the world the modern
science of Philology and the modern theory of race.
The belief that linguistic affinities prove community
* Hodson, T. C.-Cenaus Ethnography, 1901-1931, p. 11.
12 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVABTCORE [VoL. III.
of descent was one which commended itself alike
to populations struggling for freedom and to rulers
in search of excuses for removing a neighbour's
landmark. According to Sayce, identity or relation-
ship of languages can prove nothing more than
social contact.
Physical Characters
Coming to physical characters, they are of
two kinds, definite and indefinite. The indefinite
characters include colour; texture of skin; the
colour, form, and position of the eyes; the colour
and character of the hair ; and the form of the face
and features.
1. Colour of the Skin.
The skin exhibits extreme divergence of colour,
and serves, with hair, as a classical basis of dis-
tinction of human races. Anthropologists are
agreed that primitive men were much alike and
were dark in colour. It is said that colouration of
the skin is the conjoint effect of a number of environ-
mental factors working through physiological pro-
cesses. The pigment of the skin is found in the
epidermis, and the influence of light favours its
formation. In a cold climate, where thermal action
is weak, a discolouration of the pigment in the
skin and other parts of the body produces a kind
of albinism. The Kanikkar, the Ullatans, and the
Malayarnyans, who live at low elevations, are dark-
er than the Muthuvans, the Mannans, and the
Paliyans of the High Eanges. Blondness increases
appreciably on high hills. " Waitz long ago affirmed
the tendency of mountaineers to lighter colouring
c
erf
o
VOL. III.] INTBODUCTIOET 13
from his study of primitive peoples. This may
not be entirely due to climatic contrast between
mountain and plain. Economic poverty of the
environment and poor food supply have also a
hand."* Finot thinks that colour is the direct
effect of the milieu . Woodroff concludes that
"man is invariably covered with a pigment which
acts as an armour to exclude the more harmful
short rays and moreover the amount of pigment is
in direct proportion to the intensity of light of the
country to which his ancestors have proved their
adjustment by centuries or millciiiums of survival
of health and vigour."! The Thantfipulayas, who
live in the vast expanse of sand along the coastal
region, the Pulayas, and the Parayas, who work
in the rice fields throughout the day, are jet black
in complexion. "The intensely dark people are
all dwellers in hot countries, and are all very
dolichocephalic or long-headed. In almost every
case, these dark tribes have lived for untold ages
in hot climates and have perhaps hardly varied
their climatic enviornment since their original deve-
lopment somewhere in or near the tropics of the
old world. "J
Hair and Eyes
From one end of India to the other, the hair of
the great mass of the population is black or dark
brown. The Kanikkar have curly hair. "The
Uralis have also very curly hair which is also harsh
* Soxnplo, E G- The Influence of Geographical Environment, p. 39
t Dunoan, H. 0.. Race and Population Problems, p. 30.
% Griffith Taylor Ilace and Environment:. j> 3ft*
14 THE ABORIGINES OF TKAVANCOBE [VOL. III.
and in some individuals crisp and kinky."* Curly
hair lias been noticed by me among the Malavetans,
the Vishavans, the Ullatans, the Malapantarams,
and the Paliyans. The hair so curls on itself that
it seems to grow in separate spiral tufts. Dr. Guha
has observed the existence of frizzly hair among
the Kadars and the Pulayans of the Cochin State.f
Dr. Hutton has recently drawn attention to the
presence of the Negrito type among the Angami
Nagas.t To him, the Uralis seem to suggest the
Negrito as much as the Kadar does.
The eyes of the primitive tribes are invariably
dark brown. It is highly probable that brown was
the primitive eye colour in man. The brown colour
seems to have been retained, as it affords protec-
tion for the eye against the strong rays of the sun.
Rare cases of albinism are noticed among the
Kanikkar. Such men have white skin, yellow hair,
and dark blue iris.
Definite Characters
1. Stature. Three characters are selected
under the definite head. They are the stature, the
proportions of the head, and the nose. Darwin
holds that "Changes such as size, colour, thickness
of skin, and hair have been produced through food-
supply and climate from the external conditions in
* Button, The Census of ludia, 1931, 1 : India, Pan III, u Elhno.
graphical" B. p. 11.
t Hulton, The Census of India, 1931, 1 : India, Part III, " Ethno-
graphical, " A, p. 1.
I Hutton, The Census of India, 1931, 1 : India Part I, p. 442.
VOL. III.] INTRODUCTION 15
which the forms lived. "* Stature is partly the
result of feeding and hence of geographical condi-
tions: "It is a feature which reacts rapidly to
changing environment, "f In Travancore, the pri-
mitive tribes are generally shorter than those on
the plains ; but within the hilly regions, ' ' stature
is often larger at high than at moderate latitudes,
which is ascribed to the influence of rigorous
climate in killing off all but vigorous individuals. ":(:
Sir Arthur Keith says that "the greater activity
of the pituitary gland gives the Caucasian his
height of stature, bulk of body, prominent chin,
strong eye-brow ridges, and pronounced nasali-
zation. " Improvement in the quality or abun-
dance of food or in other conditions has been
supposed to lead on the other hand to increase
of stature .fl This may be true of the Malayarayans,
the Muthuvans, the Uralis and others. The average
stature of the primitive tribes of Travancore is
given in Table III. The greater height of the Mala-
pulayas, the Piiliyans, and the Muthuvans may be
due to the more vigorous functioning of the pitui-
tary gland at higher elevations. "Excessive tall-
ness is the result of inherited excessive activity of
the pituitary gland, the factors for tallness being
mostly recessive due to the absence of inhibition to
prolonged growth.'*** Davenport says that, "the
* Sotqph, H.C., The Influence* of Geographical Environment, p. 34.
t Griffith Taylor Rac<3 and Environment, p. 38.
t Rialey, The People of India, p. 31.
$ Duncan, H G. Race and Population Problems, p. 33.
H Ruggles Gates, Heredity iti Man, p. 42.
** Ruggles Gates Heredity in Man, p. 50.
16
THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE
III.
rugged hills of Scotland harbour a race that are
relatively giants. Conditions in life cannot account
for the difference, there is a difference in blood."*
TABLE III.
No.
Name of
Tribe.
Number 1
measured. 1
(-> HO
Percentage
my.
Short
Medium.
Tall.
1
Paraya
(Sambavar) .
27
164-33
6-66
...
16-67
40-00
43-33
2
Malapulayau
32
158-84
8-28
18-75
15-63
60-00
15 62
3
Paliyun
28
157-32
7-60
10-71
4,2-86
32-14
14-29
4
Mannan
42
151-90
6-02
23-81
66-67
9-72
...
5
Muthuvan .
90
155-29
7-44
11-11
56-67
31-11
I'll
6
7
8
Mai ay a-
rayan
M a Japan -
tar am
tJrali
132
57
121
167*83
154-26
155 69
6-02
5-4,9
6*51
3-76
17-54
7-44
52-6}
61-41
63*72
38-35
21'05
36*36
6-26
2*48
9
Viahavan
21
155-81
5-96
9*52
57-14
23-57
4*77
10
Nayadi
16
152-96
6-06
25*00
62-50
12-50
11
Ullatan
88
153*68
4-63
9*09
69-32
21-59
;..
12
Malaii-
kuraran
120
153-62
t-86
10 83
70-83
17-50
0-84
13
Malavglan .
63
163-60
5-35
15-87
65-08
19-05
...
1*
Pvilayan
95
153-47
6-66
17-89
58-05
22-11
1-96
15
Thant-i-
pulayan .
38
152-63
4*69
13 16
78-95
7'89
16
Kanikkar .
240
153 42
6-78
16-25
66-25
16 25
1-25
* Davenport, Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, p. 40.
VOL. III.] INTRODUCTION 17
The High Eanges of Travancore, whose elevation
ranges from 3,000 to 5,000 feet harbour the Mala-
pulayas, the Paliyans, the Muthuvans, and the Ura-
lis, who are taller than the tribes in the low country,
who are devitalised by malaria. The Southern
Parayas (Sambavars) are the tallest because of the
dry healthy climate and the high nutritive content
of their food. Dwarfing of the type which produces
general reduction in size is said to be the result of
unfavourable conditions or general inhibition to
growth. The effect of a scanty and uncertain
food supply is seen in the low stature of the Kanit
kar, the Malavetan, the Malankuravan, the Pulaya,
the Ullatan, and the Nayadi, because they cease to
grow early. According to Duncan's classification
of stature, groups classified as short are between
SS 1 ^ and 62*4 ; medium between 62*4 and 66 inches ;
tall between 66 and 67*4. Those classified as pygmy
are not over 58y inches high. Judged by this
standard, most of the primitive tribes of Travancore
are short. The largest percentage below 58y^ inches
is 31-58 among the Malapantarams.
2. Shape of the Head. According to Bisley,
the prevalent type of Peninsular India seems to be
long-headed, short heads appearing only in the
western zone of the country. The primitive tribes
of Travancore are long-headed with the exception
of the Malapantarams, the Nayadis, and the Para-
yas. The dolichocephaly is of a primitive type,
fo^* the vault of the head is low and the direction
of the brain backward. They show a prognathous
18
THE ABOKIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. III.
face occasionally. The Malapantarams, the Naya-
dis and the Parayas are mesocephalic. 29-73 per
cent, of the Malapantarams are dolichocephalic,
64-86 per cent mesocephalic, and 541 per cent,
brachycephalie. It is considered that the basis of
the Negrito race was probably brachycephalie or
at least nieso. The Malapantarams are in the
hunzting stage of civilization. According to the
definition of Quatrefage, the Negritos are brachy-
cephalie. It seems that admixture with a primi-
tive dolichocephalic race has affected the general
shape of the head. They have curly hair. They
may be the survivals of a Negrito type. Thte
average cephalic index of the tribes is given in
Table IV. The largest percentage of dolichoce-
plmly is among the Muthuvaii and the Urali.
TABLE IV.
!- 73
v .2
t3 S
PC
V.TV
\fnrv\ft iif 4-1 , T'niVi
J5 8
eg j o>
ce-2
r ^
CIO*
.Nanae ot the In be
S T'
C Q J '^
fl-S
^|
S5o^
Dolicho
Meso
Bra-
^
chy
1
Malavetan
63
73-85
3-29
61-29
38-71
2
Malankiuavan
120
74.33
3-22
58-33
35*K4"
5**83
3
KSnikkar
240
7-t 00
3-33
57 32
38 '6 1
4-07
4
Muthuvjin
90
72-&0
3-07
70 14
22-73
1M3
5
Ulliltan
88
74-10
3*03
fir -92
32-58
6
tJrali
121
73 05
2-H6
73-02
26-08
...
7
Malapulayan
32
74 38
2-63
rt4 55
36 '36
9 % Oi
8
Paliyan
28
74*46
3-4)
50 00
4ti 41
3'57
9
Pulayan
1)5
74*92
2-09
47-92
47-92
4-16
10
Malayarjiyan
132
73-82
3-26
T>3-36
32 82
3*82
11
Yiahavun
21
74 00
2-i9
60 67
28 -7
4-76
12
Manuaii
42
74-27
2-72
53-49
39-47
5-27
13
Thautapulayan
38
74-03
3-66
55-26
39-47
6-27
14
Mnlapantavatn
70
75-96
2-5;
29 73
64*86
5-41
15
Nayadi
16
77*59
2 ' < J4
12 50
68 '75
1875
> ( Satiib%vnr
30
78-40
3 1 1
6 *i>7
63-33
30 '00
16
ara **1?apaya
30
76-95
2-97
27 27
57*58
15-15
III.] INTRODUCTION 19
Nasal Index
Risley finds in India that the nasal index ranks
higher as a distinctive character than the stature
or even the cephalic index. The nasal index is
accepted by all anthropologists as one of the best
tests. According to Topinard, there are two types
of nose, the low, broad and flat. As a rule, the
more prominent a nose is, the narrower it is; the
flatter it is, the broader it becomes. The depth
increases with the prominence, and narrows and
diminishes with the flattening and the broadening.*
The Big- Veda employs the word 'anasa' or nose-
less to the Dasyus which designation means ' thieves
or demons.' The broad type of nose of the primi-
tive tribes is their striking characteristic. The
physical configuration of the country, the vast
stretches of fever-haunted jungles, the absence of
roads, and the complete social organization of the
primitive tribes protect them from the intrusion
of foreign influence. Where races with different
nasal proportions are intermixed, the index marks
the degree of crossing that has taken place. The
average nasal index of the tribes is given in Table V.
The Malavetan, the Malankuravan, the Kanikkar,
the Muthuvan, the Urali, the Malapulaya, the
Ullatan, and the Malayarayan have distinctly
platyrhine nose, while the Mannan, the Paliyan, the
Vishavan, and the Sambavar border on platyrhiny.
The remaining tribes are mesorhine. The percent-
age of platyrhiny is also indicated in the above
table. It is very high among the Malankuravan,
* Haddon, A. C-, Tho Races of Man p. 87.
THE ABOBIGlNES Otf TBAVANCOBE [Voii. III.
TABLE V.
No.
1
Name of Tribe.
Number 1
Measured. 1
fJI
Standard 1
Deviation . I
Percentage
Lepto Mrso-
rhiny. rhiny.
Plftty
rhiny.
Malavetan
03
89'77
7-76
1*61
25- 28
75 81
2
Malankuruvan
120
90.80
8-22
.9-33
80-07
3
Kanikkar
2-10
89-91
7-88
0-43
24-30
75-21
4
Muthuvan
90
88-71
5-75
...
22-86
77'14
5
Ullatan
88
80-11
6-86
22-73
77-27
6
Orali
121
80*75
8 '09
1-67
44-17
54-16
7
MiilapuUiyan
32
85-54
6 51
...
45-45
54-55
8
Vishavan
21
83-81
6-28
...
47-72
5238
9
Pulayan
95
84-52
7-96
4-12
40'21
55*67
10
Paliyan
28
83-68
6-94
...
57-14
42'86
11
Malay arayan
133
85'03
8-20
1 3-76
38^35
57-89
12
Man nan
42
84-72
a- 14
4-65
48 '84
46-51
13
Malapanlaruin
76
81-72
9-04
9-23
49 23
41-54
14
Than tap ul ay an
38
77 ' 97
6-95 8-82
70-59
20-59
15
Nayfidi
16
77-22
7-41
i2-50
75 -OQ
12-50
16
(Samba var
Paraya
30
30
84-83
81-52
8'23
6-07
i
6'60
43 33
50-00
3.V33
the Muthuvan, the Ullatan, the Kanikkar, and the
Malavetan. To sum up, short stature, low fore-
head, flat nose, and dark complexion are the chief
characteristic features of the primitive tribes of
Travancore. ^
a
s
o
*~rt
2
CHAPTER II
TKADITIONS OF ORIGIN
Introduction
Tradition is the product of conceptual thought.
The products of the thinking of past generation are
stored up, transmitted, and retained. Additions
are made to the store and improvements are made
in the method of storings. Tradition is thus
cumulative.* Progress in tradition may be sti-
mulated by contact of man with man and race with
race. The greater the contact, the more quickly
and easily is the existing mass of tradition dis-
seminated throughout any society. The influence
of contact of race with race has given rise to a
large number of traditions among the primitive
tribes. The course of past migrations of some of
these tribes is now proposed to be traced through
oral traditions now current among them. The
Kanikkar, the Muthuvans, the Maiiiians, and the
Uralis entertain traditions of having come from
the adjoining district of Madura or Tiiinevelly.
No tribe has such a wealth of traditions of origin
as the Kanikkar of South Travancore. They have
been handed down from generation to generation
in popular songs which they sing now.
; Kanikkar
The Kanikkar of Kottur in Neyyattinkara
taluq sing a chattu song on their past history. It
recounts that they formerly settled down in Kalakad
* Carr Saunders The Population Problem p. 414,
22 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [Voii. III.
and Kallidakurichi in Tinnevelly district. There
were 72 Kani hamlets under three chieftains,
Virappan Arayan of Viranelli Kotta,, Sithangan
Arayan of Chennalur Kotta, and Adichan Arayan of
Alanthara Kotta. In olden times, the Attingal
chief possessed rights over 'Kalakad and Kallida-
kurichi'. The failure of the Kanikkar to appear
hefore the chief (Ponnum Perumal) for three years
led to the despatch of his minister, Mathutti Pillai,
to Kalakad with a Eoyal Command, directing the
appearence of the three hill-chieftains before him
immediately. In obedience to the royal call, the
three chieftains went to Attingal and made presents
of honey, ivory, tiger-skin, leopard-skin, bamboo-
seeds, and other things to His Highness.
His Highness was so much pleased that he
conferred on Virappan Arayan the title of Vira
Marthandan Arayan and gave the chief profuse
presents. It was also ordered that Vira Marthan-
dan Arayan might collect a tax from the Kanikkar
of the 72 hamlets. His Highness was about to
arrange for the feeding of the hill-chieftains and
their followers, when Vira Marthandan informed
him that they would themselves cook their food and
that they would be satisfied, if they were given
provisions. These were accordingly supplied.
While they were on thteir way to cook their food,
they were accosted by Ohennan and Chakki (Chan-
nans by caste) who invited them to their home.
There they ate the food given by Chakki. His
Highness, who was informed of the incident, said,
"Mannuchaiman Malayarasan, " which means "by;
VOL. III.] TRADITIONS OF ORIGIN 23
your association with Channan, you have fallen in
my estimation. You deserve to be only Mala-
yarayan or lord of the hills".
Vira Marthandan Arayan reached Kalakad,
and collected and enjoyed the tax from 72 hamlets
as ordered by the Attingal chief. He tlien decided
to celebrate his installation ceremony as Chief of
the Kanikkar, and issued invitations to Adi Pandi
Pandiyan, Mid-Pandi Pandiyan, and Thala-Pandi
Pandiyan, and others to the ceremony. Adi
Pandi Pandiyan scoffed at the invitation and jeer-
ingly sent word that lie would attend the ceremony,
if the Chief's sister were given to him in marriage.
This reply provoked Vira Marthandan so much that
he decided to divert the waters of the Kothayar, the
Paraliyar, the Manimuthiar, and the Chemburanthar
from flowing into Adi-Pandi by constructing a
dam. Some water still trickled to Adi-Pandi. The
medicine-man (Plathi) told Vira Marthandan that,
if the dam were bismeared with the blood of his
sister, Karimpandi, no water would flow to Adi-
Pandi. No less a sacrifice was demanded of Vira
Marthandan, but he did not flinch from carrying
out the words of the medicine-man. The insult
was so keenly felt that the blood of his sister was
poured on the dam, and no water trickled down
eastwards thenceforward. This brought famine to
Adi-Pandi. After ascertaining the cause, the Pan-
diyan Chief repaired to the Attingal Chief, and
sought relief. Mathutti Pillai was sent to Kalakad
to break the dam with an elephant and allow water
24 THE ABOBIGINES OF TKAVAKCOBE [VOL. III.
to flow eastward. Vira Marthandan tried to dis-
suade him from doing it, but his words were not
heeded. When Mathutti Pillai proceeded to break
the dam with the elephant, Vira Marthandan dis-
charged an arrow and killed the elephant. Mathutti
Pillai committed suicide saying, "you have killed
your sister and my elephant. I too shall end my life
here." This tragic event enraged the Adi-Pandi
Pandiyan and he declared war against the Kanikkar.
The latter were defeated and their chieftains com-
mitted suicide. But some of the Kanikkar escaped to
Travancore and are said to be the earliest Kani
settlers in this country. The memory of Mathutti
Pillai is enshrined in their religious songs, and
offerings are made to him even to this day. This
is the tradition current among the Kanikkar about
their emigration into Travancore.
The history of Travancore tells us that "the
famous warrior-kings, Sri Mankoda Bhuthala Vira
Sri Viraladaya Marthanda Varma, conquered the
whole of Tinnevelly district from the Pandiyans
about 700 M. E. (1531 A. D.) and married a Chola
Princess, Cholakula Valli, who brought with her
the district of Calcaud as dowry. The dam across
the Kothayar which stands even now under the
name Virapuliana is said to be erected at the
period."* Kalakad witnessed several vicissitudes
of fortune in later times. It now forms part of the
British dominion in India. According to the tradi-
tion current among the Kanikkar, they were in
* V. Nagamiah. Tha Travancore State Manual, Vol. I, p. 37.
a
o
a
I
I
VOL. III.] TRADITIONS Otf ORIGIN 25
Kalakad when it formed part of Travancore, and
they emigrated to this country as a result of their
defeat in the war with the Adi-Pandi Pandiyans.
The Muthuvans
The Muthuvans 011 the Cardamom Hills believe
that they were immigrants from Madur& and that
they were driven to the hills owing to internal dis-
sensions. It may possibly have been at a time
when the Telugu Naickans took possession of Bodi-
naickaiiur in the fourteenth century A. D. The
Muthuvans who came to the High Ranges of
Travancore via Bodinaickanur carried their child-
ren on their back when they climbed up the Ghats
and hence they ha,ve come to be known as Muthuvans
(Mutfeuku moaning back). This is one version.
Another version is that, when they left Madura,
they carried on their back the goddess Meenakshi,
and are therefore called Muthuvans. The Muthuvan
males even now carry loads on their back, the
females, their babies.
The Mannans
"The Mannaus also claim that they came from
Madura to the Cardamom Hills of Travancore.
Being fond of animal food, they thought that they
conlcl live comfortably on the Travancore Hills,
which abounded in sambar, black monkey, and
other wild animals. The quest for food is, there-
fore, said, to be the cause of their immigration.
Another version is that they were formerly depen-
dents pf the ting of Madura. Owing to internecine
dissensions, they were obliged to leave Madura
26 THE ABORIGINES OF TKAVANCORE [VOL. III.
under the leadership of a chief known as Poonjat
Eaja. They entered the hills via Cumbummettu
and settled down in various parts of the Cardamom
Hills. They also installed their deiy, Chokka-
iiadar on the Chokkanad peak, and Chantiyat Amrna
at Ayyapancoil. It is said that they once owned
a small tract of land near Cumbum. It was leased
to the people of that place and the produce realised
was used for temple service by the Varayil Kizil
Mannau. This land was lost through litigation.
Tradition has it that one of the former Rajas of
Poonjat nominated three Mannans as his agents for
the management of his dominion. One of them was
installed at Talliaramalai with a silver sword as
his badge, the second, Gopura Mannan was in-
stalled at Udumbunchola, Since the Cardamom
Hills passed into the hands of the Government of
Travancore, they owe only a nominal allegiance
to the Poonjat Chief, who is still held in veneration
by them.
The Gratis
The Urfdis claim that they were the depen-
dents of the king of Madura, and that their duty
was to hold umbrellas during State processions.
In ancient times, many of the parts included in the
Tliodupuzha taluq belonged to the king of Madura.
Once when the king came to Neriamangalam, the
ancestors of the Uralis are said to have accom-
panied him and were probably left there to rule
the locality.* This fits in with another account
that is current among them. Formerly there was
* N- Subramania Iyer The Travancore Census "Report 1901, p. 350.
VOL. III.] TRADITIONS OJF ORIGIN 27
a chief known as Nedittu Thampuran ruling over a
tract of about four square miles of land called
Nedittu in the Arakulam hills of Thodupuzha Kange.
The Uralis were his vassals. They were fond of
the sweet toddy drawn from Azhathengu (Arenga
Wightii) and used to tap the trees for it. The chief
observed the tapping of the palm for some days
and desired to drink some of the juice. He there-
fore climbed the tree unobserved for a few days
and drank the juice. As the Uralis were not
getting the usual quantity of juice, they grew sus-
picious, and resolved to keep watch over the tree.
They found the chief climbing the tree and drawing
the juice. Praia Urali discharged an arrow at the
chief. It did not strike him, but hit the bottom
of the bamboo tube. The chief was infuriated.
He descended from the tree and said, "May
you adiyars (slaves) remain prosperous. May
those who aimed at my life suffer extinction." The
chief then left for Thodupuzha. The Uralis con-
sider that they were his vassals and pay homage
to him in his temple at Nedittu. The Mannan s
are said to have held sway over the Uralis in former
times. They were a source of terror to the tjralis.
and any Urali who remained in a tree-house on the
arrival of the Raja Mannan was caught and severely
chastised. The Eaja Mannan used to be the arbiter
of their disputes, and they paid him 4 chuckrams
and one para of paddy each annually, but, since
they passed into the tutelage of the Government of
Travancore, they stopped this payment.
28 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. III.
The Paliyans
The Paliyans of Vandamet say that they were
living in Madura, and a PantHram told them that
they would find it congenial to go and live on the
Cardamom Hills in Travancore which were un-
inhabited. On hearing this, they came to the Car-
damom Hills and settled down at Vandamet, Ano-
ther tradition current among them is that a Kallar
of Madura had two wives, and that, when some
dissensions arose, his children by the second wife
fled to Sankurandamalai, fearing molestation.
Those who did not fall a victim to the marauders
came to be known as Paliyans. They came to the
Cardamom Hills via Bodinaickanur. In memory of
this connection, the Kallars of Madura refrain
from doing any harm to the Paliyans. These two
tribes interdine, but do not intermarry. A Kallar
will not allow a Paliyan guest to depart without
being fed. The Paliyans pride themselves on being
called Kattukallars. The Kallars proper are known
as Nattukallars.
The Vishavans
The Vishavans seem to think that they are
autochthonous, but the names of some of their
exogamous clans indicate that they came from
Adirapalli in the Cochin State; for example, the
Maringathukars are those who came from Marin-
gath near Adirapalli.
Conclusion
The traditions current among some of the
primitive tribes as to their origin and migration to
VOL. III.] TRADITIONS OF ORIGIN 29
Travancore Hills have been described so far; but
the people of thie plains generally ascribe the
colonization of the hills to sage Agastya who came
from the north. Tt is said, "that sage Agastya
repaired to Dwaraka (Tamil Tuvarupathi), and
taking with him eighteen kings of the line of Sri
Krishna, eighteen families of Vels or Velirs, and
others, moved to the south with the Aruvalar tribes
who appear to have been the remnants of the
Kurumbas.* The Kurumbas appear to be the
remnants of a great and widespread people, who
erected the dolmens, and form one of the Pre-
Uravidian tribes of South India.f Agastya had
the forests cleared and built up kingdoms settling
there the people he brought with him. This
migration is said to have taken place about 1075
B. C. Popular tradition supports the theory of
Agastya's conquest of South' India. The foot-
prints of Agastya in his adventurous journey to
the south are said to be visible at various places
and the stages of his travels are marked by the
little Asramas (hermitages) he set upon his way.
The Travancorean holds in great veneration the
Agastyar peak, the highest peak of the Western
Gh&ts, where Agastya is said to live even today,
and his image is installed and worshipped at the
Olakarivu waterfall on the Asambu hills in Thovala
taluq, at Marutuamala near Cape Comorin, at Na-
gercoil, and other places. The adventures of Agas-
tya are relevent to the extent that he is said to have
*Srinivsa lyeugar, M,, The Tamil Studies, pp. 45 and 46.
tKeane, A. H , Man Past and Present, p. 169.
30 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. III.
played a conspicuous part in reclaiming primeval
forests in Southern India and making them fit fo'r
human habitation. Even to this day, the Kanikkar
of South Travancore curse their enemies by swearing
by Agastya and make annual offerings to him at
Agastyar peak.
The Epic and Puranic legends contain tradi-
tions relating to the physical characters of the abori-
gines (Nishadas). "The Bhagavata Purana des-
cribes the Nishada as black like crows, very low-
statured, short-armed, having high cheek bones,
low topped nose, red eyes, and copper-coloured
hair."* His descendents are distributed over the
hills and forests. The Anamalai Hills in Southern
India form the refuge of a whole series of broken
tribes. They are characterised by dark hair,
short stature, and broad nose. Since the physical
features of the Puranic Nishadas indicate their
affinities to the so called Pre-Dravidians, Mr.
Chanda considers the short-statured and broad-
nosed jungle tribes as the modern Nishadas re-
presenting the old Nishada race.f It now remains
to be seen what light anthropometry has to throw
on the matter.
* Chanda, K. P-, The Indo-Aryan Races, Part I. p. 5.
t Do* Do. Do. p. 9.
CHAPTEE III.
BACIAL AFFINITIES
Early Views on Racial Origins
The Nishada was reckoned by Sir Herbert
Risley as belonging to the "Dravidian Race", occu-
pying the oldest geological formation in India, the
medley of forest-clad hills, terraced plateau, and
undulating plains which stretch from the Vindhya
Hills to Cape Comorin. He is recognised every-
where by his black-skin, his squat figure, and the
Negro-like proportions of the nose. Risley looked
to the researches of Thurston to define and classify
the jiumerous sub-tribes. "In describing the Hindu
type Topinard divided the population of the
Indian peninsula into three strata, the Black, the
Mongolian, and the Aryan. The remnants of the
first are found at the present time shut up in the
mountains of Central India under the names of
Bhils, Mahairs, Gkmds and Khonds; and in the
south under the names of Yanadis, Maravars,
Kurumbas, and Veddahs. Its primitive characters
apart from its dark colour and low stature are
difficult to discover, but travellers do riot talk of
woolly hair in India."* Mr. Thurston continues,
"that there is much that speaks in favour of the
view that the Australians and the Dravidians
sprang from a common main branch of the human
* Thurston, " The Pravidian Problem" The Madras Museum
Bulletin, 2, No. 3, p. 197-
32 THE ABOKIGINES OF TBAVAKCOEB [Voi* HE.
race. The Veddahs of India and Ceylon, whom
one might call Pre-Dr^yidians, would represent
an offshoot of the main stem. Southern India
was once the passage ground by which the ancient
progenitors of the Northern and Mediterranean
races proceeded to the parts of the globe which they
now inhabit. In this part of the world as in others,
antiquarian remains show the existence of peoples
who used, successively implements of uuwrought
stone, of wrought stone, and of metal fashioned
in the most primitive manner. These tribes
have also left cairns and stone circles indicating
burial places. It has been usual to set them
dqwfl as earlier than Dravidian. It has been stated
that the wild tribes of Southern India are physio-
logically of an earlier type than the Dravidian
tribes."* V i
Ruggeri
Sergi rightly separates from the Dravidians
a highly platyrhine type, of a nature less than of
medium type showing the greatest affinity with the
Veddahs, and together with the second type he also
perceives a third in the peninsula especially among
the Kad^rs, which type is also platyrhine, and of a
low stature, but with short and woolly hair and a
Negroid face. They are the remnants respectively
of the Australoids and the Negritos, who were
afterwards more closely placed in relief by Biasutti.
* Thurston, " The Dravidian Problem," The Madras Museum
Bulletin 2, No. 3, p. 190.
III.] BACIAL AFFINITIES 33
The following ethnic stratification is given for
India*:
3. Negritos.
2. Pre-Dravidians.
3. Dravidians.
4. Tall dolichocephalic (Mesopotamic)
elements.
5. Dolichocephalic Aryans.
6. Brachycephalic Leucoderms.
" Our theory is that the Dravidians are Australoid-
Veddahs, and are not to be confused with an oriental
extension of the Mediterranean race which Bisley
thinks, or with Elliot Smith a Brown race whose
anthropological consistency is somewhat equivocal.
It would be useful to see what physical characters
are presented by the pre-historie skulls of India,
especially of the Bayana type which Mitra refers
to as of Pre-Dravidic Veddah type, and those of
Adichanallur which, according to Lapicque, but in a
different sense from others, that is, Negroid."*
"Ruggeri mentions four skulls from the vicinity of
Madras with a head index of 60. Thurston des-
cribes them as prognathous and with the receding
forehead of the negro rather than of the Veddah.
These skulls are of considerable interest in con-
nection with the affinities of the lower Melanesian
negro with the African negro; for not many links
are known in the wide extent separating the two
groups. "f The Pre-Dravidians were followed by a
finer type; although dark-skinned, the nose was
* Ruggnrr, The First Outlines of a Systematic Anthropology
of Asia, p. 53.
t Griffith Taylor -Race and Environment, p. 182.
THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. HL
less wide, and as deep at the root as in the Veddahs,
and the profile much less prognathous, really Almost
orthognathous. It is the Dravidian type akin to
the Ethiopian (not Negroid). "They are found
in their purest form in the South Indian jungles.
Of these are the Kota, Badaga, and Kurumba peo-
ples of the Nilgiri mountains of South India. They
have leptorhine noses (index 75) and are some-
what taller than most of the so called Dravidians
with a nasal index of 84 to 94. Richards points
out that the Dravidian is more leptorhine than the
If we arrange a series of measurements of the
jungle tribes in the order of descending nasal index,
it may be seen that, as we advance from platyrhiny
to mesorhiny, there is an increase in the proportion
per cent of the Dravidian type, which we considered
to be raesorhine. I give below the results of my
TABLE I.
Wo. 1
Tribe. N
m- Stature
er. in cms.
Cephalic
Index,
Nasal
Index,
1
Paniyan 2
,5 157-4
74-0
95 M
& '
Kadir 2
H ; 157-7
72-9
89-8
3
Kurumba . 2
2 157-9
76-5
86'1
*
Sfrolacra. 5
50 1S9-3
74*9
85 !
5
Irula (Nilgins) 2
,5 I5&-8
76-8
84-9
6
Malavetan 2
15 154- 8
73**
84 '6
1
KAnikkar i 2
155 -t
73.4
84*(>
8
Paliyau 2
6 150-9
75 7
83'0
'^Trali : T
7 159-5
74-6
0'1
Typiowl Trfbes of Homo Indo-^Africanus
i
Kota
26 1 l2.f)
74,"
77-2
2
Badaga
40 1640
71*7
3
Kurumba of Mysore .,
50 168 *>
'
77'5
73-5
* Qriffitli Taylor Haoe *nd .Environment, p. 182.
in.]
BAOIAL
35
study based on extensive measurements of the
primitive tribes of Travancore. Comparing the
two summaries, one can understand at a glance
how the intercrossing of the jungle tribes has
the effect of diminishing the platyrhine feature
as seen among the Tamil Irulans whose nasal
index comes down to 804. Thurston expressly
TABLE II.
Fo.
Name cf Tribe.
Number
Measured.
vStature
in Cms.
Cephalic
Index.
Kusal
Index.
I
Ma lave tail
6S
153MH)
73-85
89*77
2
Malankuravari
120
153 '(52
74-33
'.(> 77
3
Kauikkar
2*0
in3-*2
74-00
81) *i)l
4
Muthiivan
90
1552
72*50
88'71
5
Uliatan
88
153-08
7* '10
89-11
e
fTrali
121
155-8!)
73-05
86-75
7
Malapulayan
32
158 84
74 38
85-54
8 '
Vishavan .
21
155*81
74-00
83'81
9
Pulayau
J)5
153-47
74'92
84-52
10
Thantapulayan
38
152-53
74-03
77*9T
11
I'aliyaii
28
157 32
74-4(>
83-68
12
Malayarayau
132
157-83
73-82
85-03
13
Mannar
42
151-00
74.27
84-72
14
Malapantaram
7<5
154-26
75-05
81-72
15
Nayadi
lf>
152-06
77-59
77-22
16
( Sambavav
( Paraya
30
30
164-33
153'33
78-40
76*95
84*33
81*52
THE ABOKIGltfES OF tEAVANCOBB
111.
notes the physical change that takes place when
the tribes leave the jungle and approach the cities.
His observation on the nasal index of the Kanikkar
is given in Table III. It will be seen that the
TABLE III.
Typo.
Avorago Nasal
Index.
Maximum Nasal
Index.
Minimum
Nasal Index.
Jungle
Domesticated
84 (>
81'2
105*0
90*5
72*3
70*8
nasal index of the jungle Kanikkar is higher
than that of the domesticated Kanikkar of ; the
plains. This is an instance of primitive short,
dark-skinned, and platyrhine type changing as a
result of contact metamorphosis towards leptorhiny.
A great elevation in nasal index is observed
among the tribes of Chota Nagpur and Western
Bengal. "Biasutti includes their habitat in the
area where a purer Veddaic substratum has
persisted. Denikcr recognises that the Veddahs
are tli6 remnants of a very primitive population,
whose physical type is most approached by a platy-
rhinous variety of the Dravidian race thus indi-
cating precisely the Santals, the Mundas, the Kols,
and the Bliumij. We prefer to confine the Dra-
vidian race to the mesorhine type. In such manner
we confer on the Pre-Dravidians the present nu-
merical preponderance, and their importance in the
ethnical stratification of India augments propor-
tionately."*
* Kuggeri, The First Outlines of a Systematic Anthropology of
Asia, p. 63<
VOL. HI.] &AC1AL AFtlffttftES 37
Eickstedt.
Barou von Eickstedt lias thrown new light
on the ethnical composition of India. According to
him, the most primitive racial stratum are the
Weddids. They probably number over 20,000,000,
and only a century ago, formed one-third of the
whole population of India. The Gondids and the
Malids are the most important sub-types. The
Gondid race is chiefly characterised in the widely
spread Gond tribes of Central India. The Malids
form the southern sub-type of the Weddids. The
type is here more primitive than among the Gondids.
In the case of many individuals, the face is extremely
low and lozenge-shaped. This shape is the conse-
quence of very wide jaw bones and pointed chin. The
chin is moreover small, and its profile, particularly
in the case of women, extremely retreating. The
nose is very broad and low, the steep forehead
often overhangs the eyes. The lips are fairly thick,
at any rate thicker than is the case with the Gondids.
Quite often the face is lightly prognathous. They
are extremely dark-skinned, indeed almost black-
brown. Dr. Eickstedt 's view is that it is not correct
without more ado to associate the Malids with the
Negrito (as has been done by Lapicque and Keane).
Negritos are indeed of small stature, even very
much smaller than the Malids, and they have dark
skins and curly hair, but they by no means reveal
the primitiveness of the Malids. It would be more
cautious and more likely correct to assume the
existence of a Proto-Negrito element and its fusion
38 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VoL. HI.
into the ancient Indian Weddid aborigines. Eick-
stedt thinks that "this standpoint does not differ
very materially from that of Keane, but signifies
a deepening arid differentiation of our view, as
must be expected with our advance of knowledge.' 1 *
According to him, "the Malids are only found in
the forest areas of India. They form a thick band
running northwards from the southernmost Carda-
mom Hills to the Nilgiris, splitting up here and
continuing on the one hand as far as some uncer-
tain northern limit in the West Mysore forests
and over the Nallamalais as far as Krishna. Kani-
kkar, Malabedar, and Kurumbar are characterestio
groups in the west, and Irular, Yanadi, Chenchu,
ete,, in the east/'f
The Negrito element in Travancore
The presence of a Negrito strain in the abori-
ginal population of South India was suspected by
early observers, but definite evidence was lacking.
Its existence among the Kadars of the Cochin State
was several times advanced by Preuss, Keane,
Sergi, and Haddon. The resarches of Lapicque
among the Kadars convinced him that the existence
of *une race nigre primitive' was incontestable.
Dr. Button has drawn attention to the pre-
sence of the Negrito type among 1 the Angami
Nagas and says, "In the Kadars and the Uralis of
* Ananthakrishna Iyer, L. K., The Mysore Tribes and Castes'
Vol. I, Eickstedt. Tho Position of Mysore in India's . Racial
History, pp. 20-25.
t Do- Do. p. 26.
VOL. Ill-] BACIAL AFFINITIES 39
extreme south, occasional individuals with frizzly
hair and low stature and negro-like features are
very suggestive of survivals of the Negrito race."*
To Dr. Hutton, the Uralis seem to suggest the
Negrito as much as the Kadar does. The height
of the men is about 5 feet, the hair is very curly,
but is also harsh and in some individuals crisp
and kinky. The features suggest that the basic
type is Proto-Australoid with some admixture of
Negrito and Mediterranean. The Kanikkar is also
described by him as Proto-Australoid with also
some Negrito admixture and being by no means
pronouncedly prognathous.f Spirally curved hair
has been observed by me among the Uralis,
the Kanikkar, the Malapantarams, the Malabetans
and the Vishavans.
Dr. Guha observed the existence of frizzly hair
among the Kadars of the Cochin State. According
to him, the comparatively low values of the Co-
efficient of Racial Likeness found between the
Kadar and the Nattu Malayan, and the Yerava,
and their divergencies from the Bhil-Chenchu type,
coupled with the distinct negroid features in many
of the individuals belonging to these tribes seem also
due to the Negrito strain among the latter, though it
may appear to be submerged at the present moment.
It has therefore to be inferred that the remnants
of the Negrito ra/ce now found among the Semangs
and Andamanese were much more widely spread
at one time and extended well into the Indian
* Hutton, The Census of India, 1981, 1: foMia, 'Part I, p. 442.
t Hutton, -,The Census of India, 1931, 1: India, Part III B,
Ethnographical, p. 11.
40 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. HL
continent to the south-westernmost end in Cochin
and Travancore, , , t ( ,. ; , , ^..
De Quatrefages laid down that the Negritos
were braehy cephalic. Dr. Guha observes, " though
the mean cephalic index of the Kadars was doli-
chocephalic, among the individuals with frizzly hair,
there was a marked tendency for a rise in the index
towards mesorhiny as shown by two individuals
having 77 '34 and 79 -29 as the values of their index,
which indicated that the basis of the Negrito type
was probably brachycephalic or at least meso as in
the Semangs, but large admixture with the pri-
mitive dolichocephalic race has affected the general
shape of their head". Dr. Guha also thinks that
the long spirals now seen among most of the Kadars
and Pulayas with frizzly hair was probably due to
the same admixture. He observed short spirals in
two individuals. At the present day, the Negritos
are found to be closely similar to the Melanesian
type in hair and head-form, but judging from the
presence of two men with short spirals and high ce-
phalic index, Dr. Guha is of opinion that the original
type was not probably unlike that of the Semangs
and Andamanese, among whom designs of bamboo
combs identical with those used by the Kadar women
are found.* A comparative statement of the
measurements of the Semang, Kadar, and Mala-
pantarams is given below in Table IV.
* Hutton, The Census of India, 1931, I, India Part III, A,
Ethnographical, p. 1.
. m.]
RACIAL AFFINITIES
41
TABLE IV.
No.
Name of
Tribs.
Sta-
ture.
Cephalic
Index.
Nasal
Index.
Hair.
Colour.
1
2
3
Seipang (Griffith
Taylor) .
Kadar (Thurston).
Malapantarara
1507
1556
1547
77'7
79*9
76-0
97*1
89'8
78-0
Pepper
crirri.
1 Short
spirals.
Spirall}
' curved.
Choco.
late.
Do.
brown.
Dark.
In Travancore arc found the Malapantarams,
a jungle tribe in the hunting stage of civilization.
In 1935, 1 measured 76 individuals of whom 22 were
dolichocephalic, 50 mesocephalic, and 4 brachycepha-
lie. Their forehead is receding, and the brow-rid-
ges are prominent. The hair is black and looks
curly in some. Their average cephalic index is
75 -95. The value of the cephalic index of the Mala-
pantarams is that it goes to confirm the theory
that the basis of the Negrito type was probably
brachycephalic or at least meso as in the Semangs,
but that large admixture with the primitive dolicho-
cephalic race has affected the general shape of the
head. The Malapantarams are surrounded by
'doleph' tribes like the Urali, Malayarayans, and
the Ullatans.
The presence of a Negrito strain in the abori-
ginal population of Southern India thus receives
additional testimony from its existence among some
of the primitive tribes of Travancore, where it has
been observed by Dr. Hutton and myself. The
photographs will bear ample evidence to it.
o
42 THE ABORIGINES OJT TBAVAffCOBE [Voii. EEL
The Negrito appears to kave been the first
inhabitant of South-eastern Asia. Traces of, his
stock are still to be seen in some of the forest
tribes of the higher hills of the extreme south of
India, and similar traces appeaf to exist in the
inaccessible areas between Assam fend Burma, where
a dwarfish stature is combined with frizzly hair
such as appears to result from the recent admixtures
of the pure or virtually pure Negrito stock of the
Andamans with blood from the mainland of India
or Burma. Dr. Hutton observes that it is just
possible that the bow is still his invention, judging
from its existence among the Andamanese. In
Travancore, the bow is still used by the Uralis, the
Muthuvans, the Vishavans, and the Kanikkar.
Proto-Australoid
The Negritos must have been early displaced
or supplanted by the Proto-Australoid who formed
one of the major elements in the aboriginal popu-
lation of India. This dolichocephalic type appears
to Dr. Hutton to have had its origin in the West.
Sewcll reverts to the theory of Australian origins,
and, in his account of Mohenjo Daro skulls, he
definitly associates the Proto-Australoid type with
the Australian aborigines on the one hand and
with the Eodesian skull in the other. According
to Dr. Hutton, the safest hypothesis seems to be
that the Proto-Australoid type in India is derived
from an early migration from the West, and its
special features have been finally determined and
permanently characterised in India itself. It is
VOL. lit]
RACIAL AFFINITIES
43
represented in the purest form in the Veddahs,
Malavetans, Irulas, Sholagas, and similar tribes
in the hunting stage of Ceylon and Southern India,
and perhaps in as pure a form as any in the nearly
related Paliyans of the Palni Hills, whose sole
weapon is the digging spud. "If we compare the
tribes of Travaneore with the Veddahs and the
aborigines of Australia, we observe that in the
shape of the head and the face, form of hair, and
skin colour, the three are essentially alike, though
the Australians are taller and show larger abso-
lute dimensions of head than the other two. It
may be observed that the Veddahs are closer to
the Australians than to the tribes of Travaneore
and outside, which are the smallest of the three.
The shortest and smallest are the Indian tribes,
then come the Veddahs, and lastly the Australians.
We may assume that all the three belong to the
same stock, the Indian tribes retaining the more
basic characters. A comparative statement of
measurements is given in Table V. It is this type
that is primarily responsible for the platyrhine
and dark-skinned elements in India.
TABLE V.
Name of
Cephalic
Nasal
No.
the Tribe.
Stature.
Index.
Index.
Hair.
Colour.
1
Australian
162-5
73-0
Platy-
wary
Chocolate.
rhino.
2
Veddah .
157-1
75-1
84 '0
wavy
Do.
3
Malavgtan.
153-3
73-5
92*5
curly
Dark.
4
Muthuvan.
154*2
73-8
88-4
wavy
Darkbrown
5
Kanikkftr .
152-9
74-2
89 '
spirally
Dark.
curved
44
THE ABOBIGINES OF TBAVANCOBB |ToL. Ht.
Blood-grouping
The evidence of blood-grouping tests made
under the auspices of the Travancore University
goes to confirm the view that the Kanikkar are of
the same stock as the Australians. 211 Kanikkar
were blood-grouped in 1939 by Dr. C. (X Karuna-
karan and they yielded the following result.
o
A
B
AB
10851 -2 %
3918-4%
6329-8%
10-5 %
A comparison of the results obtained in other parts
of India and Australia is made below:
No.
Name of
the Tribo.
No.
Blood-
grouped.
O
A
B
' AB
1
K&nikkar .
211
51-2 %
18-4 %
29.8 %
5%
2
Kadar
(Macfarlanc)
50
48 %
30 %
9 %
12 %
3
Pan! y an
(Ayyappau)
250
20 %
60 %
7-60%
10- %
4
iiiil Male
(Sarkar)
139
46-76%
15-83%
31-65%
5-76%
5
Australian .
(Phillips)
815
56 %
37'7 %
5-3 %
1 %
Barring the Paniyan of Wynad, the Kanikkar, the
Kadar, and the Hill Male of Bihar exhibit a larger
percentage of and very nearly approximate
figures for the Australian.
VOL. IIL]
KACIAL AFFINITIES
The position of the Kanikkar with reference
to tribes in different parts of the world is given
below :
No.
Name of
the Tribe.
No.
Blood-
grouped.
O
A
B
V
AB
1
Bushmen
615
56-1%
29'6%
7'5%
6-5%
2
Australian .
815
56 %
37-7%
5*3%
1 %
3
Maori
73
63 %
35'6%
1-4%
...
4
Kanikkar .
211
51'2%
18'4%
29-8%
5%
i
Recent work in testing the blood-groups of the
Australian aborigines, the Maori, and the Bushmen
shows that these and other primitive peoples are
high in A, but less in B, confirming the view that the
A blood-group originated earlier than the B.* The
Kanikkar however indicate more of B than A,
which is probably to be accounted for by the
process of miscegenation with the high caste Hindu.
Ruggles Gates thinks it probable that mankind
was originally all blood-group and that A and B
have originated subsequently as mutations or ger-
minal changes which are inherited. The statis-
tics of blood-grouping make it probable that the
B mutation has never appeared in such peoples
as the Australian aborigines, the Bushmen of
Africa, and the Basques of Europe which have a
high percentage of A, while their low percentage
of B has probably come in through crossing.
* Gates, R. liugglea Blood groups aud Physiognomy of British
Columbia Coastal Indiana, J. JR. A. I, 1934, p. 41.
THE ABOBIGIKES OF ^BAVAffCOfcE (T0L. IIL
Recent researches in the racial distribution
of blood-groups have shown that the predominance
of group B in India is in strong contrast to Western
Europe, where group B is markedly absent. The
highest percentage seems to congregate on the
mainland of Asia and the adjoining islands of
Indonesia. The percentages in India vary from
37-2 to 41-2, a marked contrast to that recorded
in England. Latte's opinion is that it is definitely
established that the distribution of blood-groups
in a given population is related to its ethno-
anthropological constitution.* Group A decreases
going east and south from Western Europe and
B increases inversely, while is characteristic of
long isolated and marginal communities such as
the Australian, Esquimo, Maoris and others.
Serologfcal tests in Travancore support the findings
of the physical anthropologist in regard to the
affinity of the hill-tribes (Kanikkar) with the
Australians.
The contribution of the Proto-Australoid to
Indian culture may be the introduction of pottery.
The presence of the boomerang as well as of the
blow-gun in South India may possibly be credited
to them, and in the domain of religion probably
totemism."t In North Travancore, the blow-gun is
found among the Muthuvans and the Vishavans,
as large reeds grow in the locality.
* Hiriton, Census of India, 1931, Vol. I, India, part I, p. 451-
T Hutton, The Census of India, 1931, 1: India, Part I, p. 444.
III.} RACIAL AFFINITIES 47
Conclusion
Tfee existence of a Negrito strain in the abori-
ginal population of South India has received addi-
tional evidence in Travancore. It 'has been
observed by Lapicque and Dr. Guha among the
Kadars and the Pulayans of the Cocliin State, and
by Dr. Hutton and myself among the Uralis and
the Kanikkar. Spirally curved hair has been
observed by me among the Crralis, the Kanikkar,
the Malavetans, the Malapantarams, and the
Vishavans. These were followed by the Proto-
Australoid (Pre-Dravidian). This type is found
among the aboriginal tribes of Central and Southern
India, and is closely allied to the Veddahs of
Ceylon, the Toalas of Celebes, and the Sakais of the
Malay Peninsula. The Malavetans, the Muthuvans,
the Kanikkar, and others may be regarded as re-
presentatives of this group.
At present there are no distinctly Negrito com-
munities in India, nor has any trace of a Negrito
language been discovered. But distinctly Negrito
features not only crop up continually from the
Himalayan slopes to Cape Comorin, but also abound
in great megalithic monuments which help us to
some extent to unravel the history of their remote
past. The observations of Dr. Hutton, Dr. Guha,
and myself go to show that Negrito features crop
up among tWe Kadars and the Pulayans, of the
Cochin State, and the Uralis, the Malapantarams,
the Kanikkar and the Vishavans of Travancore.
48 THE ABOBIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VoiJ. HL
It is interesting to point out that megalithic
monuments are largely found on the High Banges
of Travancore. Dolmens, menhirs, and alignments
are found in the region of the Uralis, the Mannans,
the Malayarayans, and other jungle tribes of
Travancore. Mr. Perry points out that, all the
world over, megalithic monuments exhibit such simi-
larities of structure that they must have been the
work of a people showing a common culture. It
is also worthy of notice that the reality of a stone-
using people is evidenced by the use of stones for
graves by some of the hill-tribes even now. The
dead are buried and a stone is planted at the head
and the foot of the grave by the Uralis, thte
Muthuvans, the Manngns, and the Malayarayans.
Systematic excavations still await the spade of
the archaeologist in Travancore. Ward and Conner
made the earliest of excavations in the State.
According to them, all the tumuli appear to be of
a period earlier than the Iron Age.* Mr. Bour-
dillon once picked up a bronze lamp from one of
the tumuli. No skeletal remains have been so far
unearthed to bear any direct evidence of the
Negrito race in Travancore. Judged by the nature
and contents of the objects found, the megalithic
remains of the Deccan and South India are said
to reveal a uniform culture, and it is considered
that the megalithic remains of Southern India
are Post-Vedic and later than any similar remains
of the Central Indian plateau, from whence the
* Ward and Conner Memoirs of the Survey of Travancore and
VOL. IIL] KACIAL AFFINITIES 49
culture would seem to have spread southwards.
The excavations of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa
reveal that one of the skulls is Proto-Australoid.
A correspondence in type is revealed by one of
the South Indian skulls, Adichanallur, which is
classed as Proto-Australoid by Elliot Smith. The
physical characteristics observed in the skulls are
found among the existing South Indian tribes and
among the Veddahs of Ceylon. While "Pre-Dra-
vidian" is their time-hDiioured appellation, Dr.
Eickstedt would call them "Weddid" and Dr. Guha,
' ' Nishadic ' '. Dr. Button has labelled them < ' Proto-
Australoid " after Sewell. It is fitting that this
designation should continue.
* Button, The Census of India, 931, I -Part I, A. p 68.
H
CHAPTER IV.
MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS
Introduction
The distribution of megalithic monuments fol-
lows the zones of the primitive tribes in India.
They are found in Assam, Chota Nagpur, South
India, and the North- West Frontier regions. They
exist over the whole country drained by the Goda-
vari, more commonly in the valleys of the Krishna,
and on both sides of the ghats through Coimbatore
as far as Cape Comorin. In Travancore the
Anjanad valley and the Cardamom Hills abound
in megalithic monuments. The dolmens are found
on both banks of the Pambaiiar in the Anjanad
valley, and command a wide view of the surround-
ing country so as to be eminently suitable for
defence. On the highlands they are larger in size
than in the lowlands, where they exhibit a pro-
gressive deterioration in size. The great concen-
tration of dolmens is in Bellary, where there are
as many as 2,127 dolmens. We observe such
concentration of dolmens also in the Anjanad valley
in Travancore.
Purpose of Megalithic Monuments
Respect for the dead appears to have been a
prominent characteristic of man in the Palaeoli-
thic and Neolithic periods. It implied a belief in
after-life. The most interesting aspect of Neoli-
thic life lay in the rituals of the dead which
consisted in the raising of works of rough stone
I
I
ctf
G
1
M
o
5
VOL. III.] MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS 51
over the dead who were buried in urns. The idea
was that the spirit of the dead should be given
a location as in life and that the chamber of the
dead should be the prototype of the home. They
apprehended that "unless the departed spirit had
a home and other things as in life, it* would hover
restless and troublesome around its old abode
doing thereby harm to the living. "* To accommo-
date the spirit they constructed various megali-
thic monuments which were rude structures built
of large pieces of stone. They consisted of single
upright stones fixed in the ground, or of rows of
such stones, or of large flat stones supported on a
number of large uprights. Megaliths belong to
the Neolithic period and also to a part of the
Copper and Bronze Ages. "Until recently, megali-
thic remains were thought of as the burial places
of mighty chiefs or temples used by the Druids, "f
Dolmen
The dolmens are rude structures consisting of
large unhewn stone resting on two or more others
placed erect. They are found scattered on the
long chain of wooded hills in Travancore. They
are generally considered to be "stones of the
monkeys ' of India, ' ' but most of the primitive
people of Travancore have no knowledge of them
nor do they evince any interest in them. The
people of Anjanad call them Valividus or abodes of
monkeys. Of their antiquity, Professors Macdonell
* Rengachari, Vo The Prehistoric India, p. 111.
t James, E 0- An In trod action to Anthropology, p. 148-
52 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVABTCORE [VoL. III.
and Keith point out references in the Big- Veda,
while the late Mr. Gopinatha Rao refers to
passages in Tolkapium and Purananuru. The
Uralis call them Pandukuzhies, pits made by the
Pandus'or Pandavas, to whom ancient mysterious
monuments all over India are generally ascribed.
They are looked upon by the credulous as sacred
and dangerous. It is said that peasants in France
will not take shelter under them or go near them
at night, but the Vellalas and the Malapulayas of
Anjanad have no such fear. They sit under them,
when they graze their cattle. Dr. Borlase thinks
that dolmens were connected with the activities
of a shady priesthood. Dubriel has tried to con-
nect many of the Deccan megaliths with sacrificial
houses in later Vedic literature. It is averred by
Walhouse that the people who built them were
a race of dwarfs about a span or cubit high, but the
results of excavation unfold a different tale. The
bones found are neither of dwarfs nor of giants,
but of men of ordinary stature and the stone slabs
used for monuments indicate that they were 1 cut
from solid rock and carried some distance, and
the people were physically equal to the present
race of men .
The earliest record of dolmens in Travancore
was by Ward and Conner in 1852. They state
that "the pandukulies or barrows, those remains
of primaeval customs so common throughout the
Peninsula, are also found here, though they are
not so numerous." The Uralis believe that dol-
mens are places where treasure is hidden. But
A Dolmen in Anjanad showing coursed masonry
on the cover slab,
A View of typical Dolmens in Anjanad,
VOL. III.] MEGALITHIO MONUMENTS 53
no such treasure has been found in any of the
dolmens examined. Dolmens are burial chambers
in which people of late Neolithic times buried
their people of importance. In Travancore they
are invariably found on the crests of hills in the
Rani Reserve, and they are built of unhewn blocks
of stone. In the erection of dolmens, certain
architectural methods and principles are observed.
By the use of the orthostatic rock, the maximum
of wall area was provided with the minimum of
thickness. With the upright wall technique went
hand in hand the roofing of narrow spaces by
means of horizontal slabs laid across on the top
of the uprights. The second feature of megalithic
architecture was the use of more or less coursed
masonry set without mortar, each block lying on
its side, and not its edge. A series of uprights is
first put in position, and over these are laid several
courses of rather smaller stones.* A variant of
the latter is found in the Anjanad valley.
Types of Dolmens
According to Colonel Meadows Taylor, the
dolmens are of two kinds, those consisting of four
stones, three supporting stones and one capstone,
leaving one side open, and those in which the
chamber is closed by a fourth stone; in the latter
case, the fourth stone has invariably a circular
opening in it. Both these types of dolmens are
found in Travancore. The dolmen at Kadukuthi
in the Rani Reserve is rectangular and the portion
* Fergusson,iRough Stone Monuments, p. 465.
54 THE ABORIGINES OF TEAVANCOEE [VoL. III.
above ground is 8 feet by 2*4 feet in dimensions.
It has only one gallery. Lengthwise, it has one
single upright on one side, and two others on the
opposite side. Sideways, there is one on each
side. The floor is paved with a single side slab.
The capstone is 7 feet by 7% feet and is rudely
triangular. The dolmen is situated on the crest
of a hill. It appears to have been a dolmen of the
earliest times as it is built of unhewn blocks of
stone. The presence of stones lying scattered
round the dolmen shows that it might have been
covered over with them. Excavation yielded me
no result.
Rev. Mateer found another type of dolmens
on the hills inhabited by the Malayarayans of
Travancore. They stand north to south with a
circular opening facing the south. A rude stone
is fitted to this aperture with another acting as a
lever to prevent its falling out. The stones like
stones at the top and bottom are single slab. "To
tins day, the Arayans make similar little cells of
stone, the whole forming a box, a few inches
square."*
Dolmens are also found at Perunthalpara on
both banks of the Thalayar or Pambanar river, a
small tributary of the Amaravathi which flows into
the Cauvery. Here on a flat level rocky table-land
are seen a large number of dolmens in groups of
three, four, or five. Around each group is a cir-
cular packing of roughly hewn stones or boulders.
* Bov. Mateor, Native Life in Travancore.
G
C
J
O
O
<
VOL. III.] MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS 55
These groups of dolmens are found distributed in
a circle. The disposition of the majority of the
dolmens is east to west. A few are also in the
north to south direction. The upright stones are
rectangular in shape, and are about 10 feet long,
5 feet broad, and 7 feet high. The cover-slab is
17 feet by 7-8 inches. The floor is? paved with
a flat stone-slab 9 feet by 4 feet 6 inches. The
inner chamber is 9 feet by 4 feet. Over some of
the cover-slabs are found remnants of rubble stone
packing. There is a semicircular entrance to the
dolmen on one side. Most of these dolmens have
four uprights, but one dolmen in some group has
only three uprights and one cap-stone, thus leaving
one side open. Monuments of this kind are also
found in the Bison valley in the Cardamom Hills.
At Vadattupara in the Malayatur Reserve there
is a dolmen consisting of four uprights, but it is
smaller and cruder in shape than those found in
the Anjanad valley.
Another type of dolmen is found on the Car-
damom Hills near Mattupatti. Here the chamber
is formed as described above, but is buried in the
earth showing only the capstone above the ground.
Dolmens of this type are found on the Nilgiris and
throughout Malabar. About 15 yards to the west
of the dolmen was found an alignment of monoliths
or menhirs planted in the earth at almost equal
distances, some small, and some very big and
impressive.
At Thondimalai on the Cardamom Hills, the
dolmens indicate that a large population must have
56 THE ABOBIOINBS OF TEAVANCOBE [VoL. HE.
inhabited that region in the early Iron Age.
" These megalithic tombs are found generally on
prominent hill-tops or ridges, and are placed in
groups. In all, six of these graves were excavated.
They were situated in a straight row, the graves
being placed close to one another. After remov-
ing the broken stones that marked the spot
about one and a half feet below the surface of the
ground was found a flat circular stone that gave
a hollow sound to a light tapping with crowbar or
pickaxe. Underneath the covering stone was found
a large urn, the mouth of which was about 15 inches
in diameter and the vertical height about three
and a half feet, placed in a vertical position in the
ground and firmly imbedded in clay and gravel
Inside each of these large urns were found six or
eight small urns, eating and drinking vessels, vases,
chatties of various shapes and sizes, some of red
clay, others black polished inside and outside, of
very thin material and very brittle to handle.
They were firmly imbedded in fine red clay that
seemed to have silted in and partly filled up the
large urn, and the small vessels were filled with
the same clay very tightly packed, and were wedged
in upon one another in such positions as to make it
very difficult to remove them unbroken. Bones were
found imbedded with the vessels in one urn, and
bones crumbled and mixed with clay in others.
The Doctor was able to identify one of the bones
as the hip bone of a man. On the top of one urn
was found the blade of a sword, almost completely
rusted through about 2y% feet long with no sign
A Thantapulaya Female Group in their
primitive costume.
VOL. III.] MEGAL.ITHIC MONUMENTS 57
of a handle. It may have had originally a wooden
or bone handle that had become completely decayed.
Inside the urn were found two iron spear-heads
and what appears to be an iron chisel. On the
top of the covering stone of another urn was
found a piece of a sword, the rest having com-
pletely rusted away .. .
The urn itself and the vessels found inside con-
form to the various types of what is called "Iron
Age Pottery" in the catalogue of Prehistoric
Antiquities in the Government Museum, Madras;
some of which were taken from Tandigudi in the
Palni Hills and other parts of the Madura Dis-
trict, but most of which are from the Nilgiris, the
Coimbatore, Malabar and Tinnevelly districts.*
The dolmens are still erected by certain tribes
of India and Burma, the Khasi, the Munda, the
Gond, the Oraon, the Bhil of Central India, the
Kurumba of the Nilgiris, and the Malayarayan of
Travancore. In 110 ease are the dolmens of the
size characteristic of the prehistoric phase of
civilization. The earliest known examples are the
largest. The dolmens in the Anjanad valley and
the Cardamom Hills bear out this point. Those
found on lower elevation in the Rani and Malaya-
tur Reserves are smaller in size. The loss of cul-
ture in the case of the tribes who built megaliths
is observed from the fact that the present day
tribes do not usually display any tendency to
construct dolmens.
* Saundera, A. J., Demons in tho Palni Hills, South India.
(Tho Madras Mail Annual, I928/)
58 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. III-
Dr. Rivers has brought out this feature very
prominently among the Todas of the Nilgiris,
where dolmens are largely found. They furnish
us with an example of a tribe at a low level of
material culture living in a district filled with
remains of a fairly high civilization. Sarat Chan-
dra Roy has observed the same fact in Chota
Nagpur and Cooper in Assam. In Travancore,
the Mnthuvans and the Vellalas, who inhabit the
dolmen area in Anjanad, evince no interest in them.
In the case of the Malayarayans who erect minia-
ture dolmens, a loss of culture can be detected in
that they do not manipulate large stones as their
predecessors did. Travancore furnishes an in-
stance of the Anjanad valley to illustrate the loss
of the material side of culture and shows that
regions now inhabited by them were once the
scenes of thriving civilization.
Menhir
Menhirs are found in parts of North Travan-
core. They are very few in number. Bruce Foote
found some menhirs of moderate size in the
Madura district, though without any markings.
We are lost in the mists of antiquity in search for
the primitive purpose of these monuments. They
may be memorial stones. There is a miniature
menhir, three feet high at Marayur, called Vatham-
kolli.
Perry observes that the reality of a stone-
using people is evidenced by the use of stones for
graves by the hill-tribes. In Watubela, the dead
A Malavetan chipping the incisor teeth.
A Malavetan woman showing the chipped teeth.
VOL. III.] MEGALITHIO MONUMENTS 59
arc buried and a stone is planted at the head and
foot -of the grave. The practice is prevalent among
the Kabui Nagas of Assam and also among the
Muthuvans, the Uralis, the Mannans, and the
Malayarayans oi ? Travancore. The Uralis plant a
stone not only at the head and foot ^of the grave,
but also on both sides of it. The survival of this
custom among the primitive peoples of Assam and
Travancore lends support to the theory that there
might have been a movement of stone-using people,
not only throughout Indonesia as far as Assam,
but also tli rough Assam to Cape Comorin.
Age of Megalithic Monuments
Systematic excavation has still to be made by
the archaeologist in Travancore. Ward and Conner
did the earliest of excavations in Travancore.
Antiquarians, after careful researches, have been
able to divide megalith ic monuments into three
classes according to their contents.
1. The Tumuli of the Stone Age are considered
to be the most ancient. They are often of great
size and are distinguished by circles of stones and
stone chambers in which are found the remains
of uiiburnt bodies with objects of stone and amber.
The dolmen opened by Ward and Conner at Chokka-
nad contained no implement, and probably belonged
to the Stone Age. This represents the lowest
state of civilization before the introduction of
metals.
2. The Tumuli of the Bronze Age contain relics
of burnt bodies, vessels, and implements and orna-
60 THE ABOKIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [Voii. III.
ments of advanced civilization. Tumuli of this
kind arc rare in Kerala, but it appears that Mr.
Bourdillon once picked up a bronze lamp which
probably belonged to one such tumulus.
3. The Tumuli of the Iron Age are the most
recent and represent a comparatively advanced
state of civilization. Iron implements, swords,
spear-heads, and highly polished vessels are found
in thorn. In the Cochin State, all the tumuli that
have been found appear to be of the Iron Age,
while in Travancore there are some that are of
even an earlier period as was revealed by the excava-
tions of Ward and Cornier.
Sifjni Ifl.cance of Dolmens
Major Mimn claims that the dolmen-builders
of the Dcccan were milling for gold, copper, iron
and diamonds. He points out that the two dis-
tricts where the dolmens are thickest are Bellary
and Dharwar, which are riddled with old workings
of gold, copper, and iron. The Anjaiiad valley
is the home of a large concentration of dolmens.
The spade of the archaeologist and the geologist
can alone determine what the mineral contents of
the soil are in Anjanad. The late Mr. Vincent
Ball says that gold-washing, as practised in India,
is an example of human degradation. The Gond#
of Central India are assiduous gold workers. The>
still erect miniature dolmens and thus show strong
signs of continuity with people of the archaic
civilization. The Kurumbas of the Nilgiris are the
VOL. III.] MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS 61
chief gold-washers of the Madras Presidency, dat-
ing" from 500 B. C. The Malayarayans of Travan-
core, according to Walhouse, make imitation Kista-
ven of small slabs of stone in the Rani Reserve
forests, but gold washing is not in evidence. It
may have become a forgotten art. The matter
requi res further investigation.
Megalithic monuments in different parts of
the world present such a uniformity of structure
that it is hardly compatible with the theory of
their independent origin. Montelius focusses at-
tention on the continuous influence of the East
on the West from remote pre-historic times.
Fergussoii thinks that the dolmen builders were
Dravidian in origin. Ruggeri strikes a different
note and opines that they are Veddaic or Australoid
in origin, and between the Mundas of the north
and the Veddahs of the south there intervene the
Kurumbas, Irulas, the Muthuvans, and the Uralis,
representing the Pre-Dravidians ( Proto-Austra-
loids) who once extended over the whole of India
and later came under the influence of the Dravi-
dians and the Aryans. According to Flinders
Petrie, the date of the Pre-Dravidian culture is
about 2500 B. C. This view is confirmed by Perry
who holds that, ' ' all the world over, the dolmens
present such similarities of structure that they
nust have been the work of a people, showing a
Common culture."* Beyond Indonesia which in-
cludes among other areas Assam and Burma,
megalithic monuments are in evidence in the region
* G. T. Perry, Megalithic Culture of IndoneHia.
62 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. III.
of the Mundas of Chota Nagpur, the Todas of
Nilgris, and the hill-tribes of Travancore.
Conclusion
Palacontolo^ical evidence also supports the
theory of the common origin of megalithic monu-
ments. No skeletal remains have been so far uii-
earthed to bear any direct evidence of the
Negrito race in Travancore. "Judged by the
nature and contents of objects found, the megalithic
remains of the Deccan and South India are said
to reveal a uniform culture, and it is considered
that the megalithic remains of Southern India
are post Vedie and later than any similar remains
of the Central Indian Plateau, from where the
culture would seem to have spread southwards."*
Two fossil remains have fecii found in India, the
Bayana Cranium and the Sailkot Cranium. Dr.
Keith is of opinion that they are of Veddaic type
which represents the Pre-Dravidian (Proto-Austra-
loid) people. "The excavations of Mohciijo Daro
and Ilarappa reveal that one of the skulls is Proto-
-Australoid. A. correspondence in type is revealed
by one of the South Indian skulls at Adichanallur
which is called Proto-Australoid by Elliot Smith, 'f
The physical clianicterestics observed in the skull*
are found among the existing South Indian Tribe?
and among the Veddahs of Ceylon. "There is
a remarkable similarity between these and the
skeletons found in the tumuli of Great Britain,
* Mutton, Census of India, 1931, Vol. I, Part 3, Ethnographical
LXV to LXVII.
t Do. Do LX1X
VOL. III.] MEOALITHIC MONUMENTS 63
France, and Germany, which exhibit features of a
dolichocephalic people*. Tlius the uniformity IP.
the structure of the monuments is marked by a
uniformity in the structure of the contained skele-
tons which belong to a dolichocephalic people."*
While Pre-Dravidiaii is their time-hqnoured
appellation, Dr. Kickstcdt would call them Weddid
and Dr. Guha, Nishadic. Dr. Hutton has labelled
them Proto-Australoid after Sewell. Though the
Pre-Dravidian has for long stood the test of time,
it is but fitting that the term Proto-Australoid
should continue.
Newbingcn, Modern Geography, pp. 203 to 204-
CHAPTER V
DOMESTIC LIFE
Clothing and Decoration
Primitive man was in a state of nudity, but in
the course of progressive evolution, he became
subject to a sense of shame which was not naturally
in him. This sense of shame which is a by-product
of modern civilization became more and more a
simple manifestation of the male. Clothing seems
to have originated in the decorative impulse. The
first and most primitive form of clothing was to
cover exposure. As typical of the level which has
been referred to as the fig-leaf state of society, there
are several tribes in Travancore who have only
recently advanced beyond that state. The Mala-
pantarams are a tribe in the hunting stage of
civilization. "The barks of trees are their clothing,
and rocks, caves, and hollows of trees, their
homes."* Mrs. Evans observed the Malavetans
"wearing dresses of leaves. "f The Kanikkar call
them ' Tolvetans ', which is reminiscent of the leafy
garment they wore in former times. Jacob Canter
Visscher has recorded that "the Ullatans wore no
clothing and regarded the tiger as their uncle, "t
The Kanikkar were as nature made them rude
with only a semblance of cloth. Rev. Mateer says
that "men almost go naked, having only a few
* V. Nagamiah , The Trarancore State Manual, Vol. II, p. 417.
f Madras Museum Bulletin, Vol. Ill, No. 1, 1900, Mrs. J. W
Evans, The Malavedars of Travancoro , p. 86-
t Jacob Canter Visacher, Letters frora Malabar, p. 129.
Paliyan woman preparing Vagi.
VOL, III.] DOMESTIC I.TFE .65
inches of cloth round their loins and a small cloth
on the head."* The Thantapulaya women formerly
wore a thanta garment which covered their front
and back. The garment is made of the leaves of a
kind of sledge called thanta (Isolepis articulata),
which are cut into lengths, woven at one end and
tied round the waist so that they hang below the
knees and cover the front and back. The thanta
garment has vanished with missionary influence.
"The Nayadis generally cover their nakedness by
tying round the waist low strings of leaves and
plants."! The Vettnvans of North Malabar, the
Juangs of Chota Nagpur, the Sakai, and the Jakuns
of the Malay Peninsula wear dresses of leaves.
Owing to frequent contact with the people of the
plains and the influence of the missionaries and
work in the plantations, the leafy garment has
been discarded.
A German scholar divides the clothing into
two types, tropical and arctic. The first of these
is based on the waist cloth or girdle which varies
between the string of beadvS and the cloak as two
extremes. The Kanikkar of Nedumangad now
wear the scantiest of clothing. It consists of an
under cloth kept in position by a string tied round
the loins. Over this is suspended an apron 2%
feet long and 1^ feet broad, one free end of which
is tucked up into the girdle tightly round the loins.
They are better clad where they are in contact with
the people of the plains.
* Rav. Mftteer, Laud of Charity, 1917, p. 49.
t Padmanabha Motion, K. P. The History of Kerala, Vol. III.
p. 550.
K
66. THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOEE [VOL. III.
Mutilations and Deformations
Closely connected with clothing are the muti-
lations and deformations which are intended to
serve the purpose of adornment. Among the Mala-
vetans of Travancore is found the most interesting
custom of chipping the upper incisor teeth in the
form of serrated cones. "On being asked whether
they have any tradition about the custom of tooth-
filing, they replied that, "it is to distinguish our
caste. Our god Chathan will be hungry, if we
neglect the custom."* The operation is done by
men for men and women for women. Before
chipping, the outer edges of the teeth are smeared
with chunnam. It is supposed to make chipping
easier. The chipping is done with a small knife
or bill-hook. The girl to be operated on rests her
head on the lap of a woman who holds it firmly.
A third woman takes a small knife and chips
away the teeth. The custom is found among the
Kadars of the Cochin State, the Malays, and among
several tribes in Africa and Australia.
The Kanikkar of Kallar tatoo to enhance
personal beauty. The operation is the woman 's
job. It is done single-handed. With males, tatoo-
jng takes the form of a circle, while it is half -moon
among women. Lamp-black or charcoal powder of
cocoanut shell is mixed up with the breast-milk of
the woman. She pricks the skin on the forehead
with the needles, and it is painted over the pricked
* Mrs. .1. W.iEvans. Madras Museum Bulletin, Vol. Ill, No. 1,
1900. The Malavedara of Travancon*, p. 86.
VOL. HI.] DOMESTIC LIFE 67
part every alternate day for early healing. Tatoo-
ing is' found among the Kadars and Malsirs of the
Cochin State, and the Todas of the Nilgiris.
The women have dilated ear-lobes among the
Mannans, the Vettuvans, the Malankuravans, the
Malayarayans, and others. Ear-tubes of reed or
brass are worn. Strings of beads adorn the neck
of women.
Food-quest
Food is the urgent and recurrent need of man.
It indicates his activities in relation to land at
every stage of economic development, fixes the loca-
lity for residence, and determines the extent from
which maintenance may be drawn, and the dura-
tion of residence thereon depends on the food
supply. The South Indian hills have still ever-
green forests yielding abundance of fruits and
tubers, and streamlets with abundance of fish.
There arc animals for game. The Malapantarams
are a small tribe in the hunting stage of civilization.
They are found in high forests where the average
rainfall is about 180 inches per annum. Owing to
the luxuriance of vegetation, they are still within
the tyranny of the jungle. They live in families of
two or three in a locality. The smaller the number,
the easier is the supply of food obtained. They,
remain for a week in a locality, and then move on
to another when the food-supply is exhausted.
Each pack has its own jurisdiction for its wander-
ing and food-supply. They do not allow another of
their tribe to encroach on their domain. If any
68 THE ABOEIGINES OF TKAVANCOBE [VOL. III.
one dares to do so, it shall he at the risk of his life.
They may average ahout one per square mife, and
they live on the pith of Arenga Wightii, Caryota
urcns, and on Curcuma aungustifolia. The Pambu-
Pulayas (Malsirs) of Anjanad live on snakes, such
as python, which they kill dexterously. The
Kadars of the Cochin State live on various edible
roots and tubers. The Kheriyas, the Birhors of
Hazaribagh, and the Irulas of the Nilgiris wander
through the jungles, and subsist on yams, honey,
and tubers of various kinds. Slender are the ties
which fasten them to agriculture.
The Kanikkfir, the Malayarayans, the tJralis,
the Paliymis, the Muthuvans, and the Vishavans
are nomadic agriculturists owing to diminution of
edible roots and game. They have a clear concep-
tion of tribal lands. Agriculture is adopted as an
adjunct to the chase. It enables them to live
together in one place and accumulate the necessa-
ries of life. The tribes on lower elevations have
rice as their staple food, while the Malapulayas,
the Muthuvans, the Mannans, and the Paliyans live
on rice and ragi. All of them eat the flesh of
sambur, jungle squirrel, wild fowl, and black mon-
key. They also eat crabs, rats, and fish.
The Uralis do not drink cow products. As
Sir William Crooke says, it may be that they, like
the Dravidian tribes of Southern India, regard it
as an excrement. The Ullatans do not drink
buffalo milk, as they fear that their gods \rould
get annoyed and would not respond to their appeals.
There is no taboo against cow's milk. A Kani-
Urali Tree-House*
VOL. III.] DOMESTIC LIFE 69
kkaran used to vomit and get head-ache if he
drank milk. The Muthuvan, the Mannans, and the
Kanikkar have taken to coffee, while tea has become
indispensable to the Uralis. Living as the Uralis,
the Mannans, and the Muthnvans do on high eleva-
tion, they are fond of arrack. In the words of
Montesquc, the prevalence of intoxication in
different parts of the earth is proportionate to the
cold and humidity of the air. It may be that a
gloomy temperament and a cheerless life may induce
people to artificial cheerfulness produced by drink.
Production of Fire
The production of food is connected with the
production of fire, for which the savages exercise
their ingenuity in a variety of ways. Like the
Aiidamaiiese, the Malapantarams were ignorant of
the art of making fire. Tradition has it among
the Kanikkar that it was the sage Narada who
taught them how to make fire by means of a hand-
drill. Sticks of Unnam (Grcwia tiliaefolia) and
Ixora Coryfolia are used. A slot %inch deep is made
in the centre of the stick. A man keeps it in posi-
tion under his big too, takes a round stick of hard
wood 18 inches long, holds it on in a vertical posi-
tion keeping one end of it in the slot, and turns it
quickly backwards and forwards with both his
hands. A portion of the wood dust produced in
the process remains in the slot and the heat gene-
rated by friction ignites it. This process was in
vogue among the Malavetans and the Ullatans.
70 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. III.
The Kanikkar also make fire by the flint and
steel method. Pieces of flint and steel and some
floss of Caryota ureiis are the materials required.
The floss is held near the flint and the latter is
stuck with the steel. The friction produces sparks
of fire which ignites the floss. This process is
resorted to in cold weather. The method of making
fire with flint and steel is in vogue among the
Muthuvans, the Mannaiis, the Malayarayans, and
the Vishavans. It has almost died out among the
Malapulayas, the Paliyans, the Ullatans, and is
known among the Kadars of the Cochin State and
the Badagas of the Nilgiris. "The Pulayas knew
how to make fire by fricton of wood as well as
stone."* Safety matches have now taken their
place.
Habitations
Natural shelters, namely caverns, overhang-
ing rocks, holes in the ground, and hollow trunks
may have been the abode of primitive man. The
Malapantarams and the Kanikkar may once have
occupied them. The Thantapulayas are also called
Kuzhipulayas in memory of their having taken
shelter in burrows in former times.
The Malapantarams make the simplest of dwell-
ings. They live together in rock-shelters or under
break-winds made of junglewood posts and thatch-
ed with plantain leaves, which accommodate two
persons. The hut is circular and conical, and the
* Thurgton, Ethnographic Notes in Southern India, p. 468.
A Muthuvan Bachelor^HalK
A Kanapulaya Hut showing seclusiorvshed
VOL, III.] DOMESTIC UFE 71
floor is on a level with the ground ; and has hardly
room for a husband, wife, and child. Boys and
girls are housed for the night in separate sheds
close to the paternal roof. The Chenchus live in
caves, and the Birhors put up sheds in the form of
low kumbas or raw shelters.
The Kanikkar have a better type of dwelling.
The huts are wide apart in some places. Bamboo
forms the chief building material. The floor of
the hut is on a level with the ground. Tree-houses
are found where wild elephants roam about In
parts of Klamala Reserve. A single bamboo with
the shoots on the sides cut short serves as a ladder.
According to Lord Avebury, many savage tribes
live in lake dwellings, and the Graros of Assam
and the Kanikkar of Travancore are reckoned by
him tp live in dwellings 8 to 10 feet from the ground,
the object being protection from man and wild
animals. A survival of this custom was found
among the Kanikkar of Mothiramala, where two
pile-dwellings were seen by me. Dr. Keane does
not attach much importance to pile-dwellings. He
does not agree that this custom was peculiar to
the backward races. They are more sanitary than
the other huts in which they dwell. One feature
of the domestic architecture of the lower culture
is the institution of the bachelor-hall, where the
young men of the community sleep and live. It
is an important means of preserving social life. It
is found in a conspicuous building in Mothiramala,
Chembikunnu, and Kottur. Unmarried girls re-
main in a liut vacated for them. This practice
is also seen among the Muthuvans and the Mannans.
72 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [Voi. HL
The Muthuvan, the Mannan, and the Paliyan
huts are found together in a group, as they are
living on higher elevations. The idea of defence
is the first motive in the grouping of huts into
villages. Each village has a common place of wor-
ship, a chavadi for visitors, and separate dormi-
tories for boys and girls. The Urali huts are
isolated. Each man has a tree-house which is
about 50 feet above ground. They spend their
nights in it for fear of elephants. Each hamlet
has a common tree-house reserved for women in
menses. There is a common tree-house as granary.
The huts of the Malayarayan, the Ullatans, and
the Malapulayas are of an improved type, as the
floor is raised from the ground, and they have
mud walling. The Vetans, the Malankuravans, and
the Thaiitapulayas live in miserable huts. The
dwellings of the Kanapulayas are neat huts formed
of junglewoocl posts with walls of mud or laterite
stones, and thatched with straw. They are gene-
rally situated by the side of paddy flats or nestle
under trees along their borders. The institution
of the bachelor-hall is found among the Porojas of
Vizagapatam Agency, the Nagas, the Lusheis, the
Andamanese, and others.
Furniture and Utensils
The primitive tribes of Travancore live in the
region of the bamboo and the reed. These mate-
rials are used for a variety of purposes. There
is a family likeness among all articles made by
tropical peoples and this is accounted for by the
VOL. III.] DOMESTIC LIFE 73
uniformity of climate and environment. The
domestic utensils consist of a few bamboo tubes
whoso intemodes provide them with the necessary
bottom, a few cane baskets for keeping grain, and
brass vessels among the Malayarayans, the Muthu-
vans, arid the Uralis.
Weapons and tools
Primitive man ransacked his environment and
got the best out of it which his grade of culture
was capable of extracting. His prime necessity
was food, and he was more a gatherer than a
hunter. This necessitated the use of some weapons.
The digging stick is still used by the Malapantaram,
the Malavetan, the Vishavan, and others to collect
wild roots and tubers. The Kanikkar who have
been using the wooden hoc for raking up the soil,
and the digging spud, have taken to the use of the
axe, bill-hook, and spade.
The Bow
How primitive man developed the bow and
arrow is not easily imaginable. It is just possible
that it is the invention of the Negrito, as it is found
in the Andamans among them where they are in a
state of hostile isolation.* In Travancore, the bow
is still used by the Kanikkar, the Muthuvan, the
Urali, the Ullatan, and others to kill animals which
do damage to their crops. The bow is made of
a single stave. It is made of Nara (Polyalthia
fragrans) or bamboo. The string is made of the
* Hutton. J. H-. The Ceusiis of India, 1931. I Part T p. 44^7
74 THE ABORIGINES OP TBAVANCOKE [VOL. III.
fibre of the adventitious roots of Ficus and is
tied to notches at the end of the stave. The arrow
is made up of reed. To steady the flight of the
arrow, three rows of fowl's feathers are struck
into it with gum. They say that their ancestors
were a stronger people and that they used to kill
bigger animals. They have grown weak, since they
took to the use of the gun.
The Kanikkar also use the pellet-bow. They
use pellets of stone which are flung with great force.
The stave is made of bamboo. It is wider at the
centre. It is used for killing small game and for
driving away monkeys.
Blow-Tube
The Muthuvans and the Vishavans kill birds
by means of the blow-tube. It is made of reed,
and is 50 inches long with a diameter of 14 inch.
The dart is 5 inches long pointed at one end and
winged at the other. The dart is propelled by the
breath and covers a distance of 50 to 75 feet. It
is found among the Muthuvans of the Palny Hills
and the Malays. Dr. Button thinks that there is
no possibility at all of these blow-guns having come
from the Malay Penninsula, though Mr. Foulkes
said that he had seen on the Madras coast blow-
guns which were admittedly imported from Malay
Peninsula. Dr. Hutton is of opinion that the
presence of the blow-gun may possibly be credited
to the Proto-Australoid.* One thing is evident:
it occurs wherever larger reeds grow.
* Button, Census of India, 1931, Vol. I, part 1.. p. 444.
^iuthovain blowing his
A. Visha.vaLn
fish.
VOL. III.] DOMESTIC LIFE 75
The Vishavans use the Muppati or three
pronged iron for spearing fish. The modern hill-
tribes are aware of the use of iron. The Nayadis
collect honey with the aid of a Kothuli. This
consists of an iron piece sharp at an end fitted ijito
a wooden handle.
CHAPTER VI
EXOGAMY
Introduction
Sir James Frazer calls Southern India the
classic home of exogamy. The social organization
of the hill-tribes of Travaiicore is built on the
foundation of exogamy. Primitive peoples attached
the greatest importance to the rules of exogamy,
and the punishments inflicted for any breach there-
of were very severe. The tribe forms the outer
circle within which a man must marry. Witliin the
circle there are sub-divisions, and persons belong-
ing to these sub-divisions are prohibited from mar-
rying within the sub-division. They are called exo-
gamous groups or clans. The theory is that mem-
bers of a clan are descended from the same male
ancestor, and are, therefore, related. Hence marri-
age is not allowed within the clan. The clan may be
defined as a unilateral kinship through either parent
to the total exclusion of the other.
Malap ant dram
The Malapantarams are the least modified sur-
vival of the aboriginal population of Travancore.
They have 110 clan system, but there are two groups
among them consisting of three or four families
having no distinct names. Each group is exo-
gamous. A man marries the daughter of his ma-
ternal uncle or of his father's sister. Thus double
cross-cousin marriage is practised.
VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 77
Kanikkar
The Kanikkar of South Travancore have a more
highly developed system of exogamous clans than
those in Quilon and Shencotta Divisions. In the
vicinity of Kulathupuzha, where they have been
under more civilizing influences, there are only two
clans and they are known as Muttillom and Menillom*
The men of each half are obliged to take their
wives from the other half. They trace the origin
of the clan to the carcase of an elephant. The man
who saw the haunches and hind limbs of the carcase
belonged to Muttillom, and he who saw its trunk
belonged to Menillom. The Kanikkar of the present
day claim to be the descendants of these two ances-
tors. There are four clans among the Kanikkar
of Naravelli in Nedumangad taluq. They are
Muttillom, Menillom, Kayyillom, and Palillom, and
all are exogamous. Members of Muttillom and
Menillom, considered to be superior to the other
clans, intermarry. There is neither intermarriage
nor interdining between these and the other two
clans. The members of the two inferior clans
are not even invited to the marriage ceremonies of
the superior clans, and if they attend the cere-
monies uninvited, they are fed only after the supe-
rior clans have had their feast. In less developed
areas of Neyyathumkara Range, there are two dis-
tinct divisions or phratries, the Annanthambi phra-
try and Macchambi phratry. The Annanthambi
phratry includes the clans of Menillom, Perinchil-
lom, and Kayyillom, and Macchambi phratry, the
78 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. HI.
clans of Muttillom, Velanatillom, and Kurumillom.
Intermarriage between members of the different
clans of the same phratry is prohibited.
Interesting stories are current among the Kani-
kkar as to the origin of their clans. The ancestors
of the Kanikkar of Mothiramala felt an abhorrence
to the promiscuous life they led in the past. With
a view to evolving order out of this chaotic social
condition, Illampalli Muthan and Thiruvanpalli
Muthan decided that there should be a dual organi-
zation of the Kanikkar, namely, Annanthambi
illakkars and Macchambi illakkars. Each division
was further sub-divided into five clans, and the
Kanikkar of the present day are said to be their
descendants.
The Kanikkar of Mankutty have invented a
very ingenious story about the origin of the clan
system. The story is that a sambur once did great
havoc to their crop and the man who shot an arrow
at the animal and killed it became Kurmillom. The
men who sat on the hedge and saw the incident
became Velillom and another who watched the fun
at a distance, Velanatillom. The man who removed
the sambur 's head became Muttillom and one who
carried the forelimbs, Kayyillom. Another who
bundled a small quantity of flesh in leaves which
swelled its appearance, belonged to Perimanillom.
The man who removed the bowels became Man-
gotillom, and one who removed the udder of the
carcase,, Palamalaillom. Lastly, a man who left a
python in water belonged to Perinchillom.
VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 79
In the hamlets in the vicinity of Kallar in Nedu-
mangad taluq, the clans are known by other names,
and the origin of the clan system is said to be
different. The Annanthambi phratry includes Vella-
yillom, Mannatillom, Thumbraillom, Velanatillom,
Mulaikonathillom, and Muttillom. The Macchambi
phratry includes Menillom, Patikayillom, 'Erum-
biyat illom, Paramala illom, and Pothottillom. Re-
garding the origin of these clans, it is said that
once a wild elephant lay dead in the jungle, and that
different parts of its carcase were appropriated by
different men, from whom originated the different
clans. The man who only got the earth where the
carcase lay belonged to Mannatillom. One who
carried away the genital organ became Thumbara
illom. The man who removed the heart belonged
to Vellayillom. The man who got the lion's share
of the flesh belonged to Menillom. One who got only
the ants that swarmed there belonged to Erumbiyat
illom. Mulaikonath, Patika, and Pothottilloms are
named after the places called Mulaikonam, Patika,
and Pothode. As regards Paramala illom it is said
that a Kanikkar boy and girl were found hiding
in a rock cave called Paramala and they were re-
moved to the nearest hamlet and brought up. The
children of the girl belonged to the Paramala illom.
Those who saw and enjoyed all the fun belonged
to the Velanat illom. Dr. Edgar Thurston gives
currency to the theory that clans are named after
mountains and places such as Palamala, Thalamala
etc. This view is not entirely correct as regards
the Kanikkar of the present day.
80 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VoL. III.
The system of tracing kinship through the
mother is not altogether extinct among the hill-
tribes of Travancore. Among the Kanikkar, the
children of a man of Kuruinillom clan by his wife
of Porincliillom clan belong to the latter clan. Ac-
cording to the rules of exogamy, no man is allowed
to marry a woman of his own clan. As a woman 's
children belong to a clan different from that of her
brother 's children, it follows that these children who
are cross-cousins can intermarry according to the
rule of exogamy. On the other hand, children of
brothers or of sisters belong to the exogamous clan,
and cannot therefore intermarry. Though double
cross-cousin marriage is permissible, a man gene-
rally marries the daughter of his maternal uncle.
A child is generally named after a member of the
mother's clan, a maternal uncle, an. aunt, or mater-
nal grandparent. Scholars, like Sir Henry Maine
and M. Fustel De Coulaiiges, did not recognize the
system of female descent and thought that the exo-
gamous clan with male descent was an extension of
the patriarchal family which was the original unit
of society. The wide distribution of exogamy
and the probable priority of matriarchy to patri-
archy was first brought into prominence by Mc-
Lennan.*. Under the system of female descent,
there was no transfer of clanship among the Ka-
nikkar. The children belonged to the mother's clan.
With the introduction of male kinship came the
practice of transferring a woman from her own clan
to that of her husband.
* R. V. Kussel The Tribes and Castes of Central Provinces'
Vol. 1, p. 144.
VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 81
Mutbiwan
The Muthuvans of Neriamangalam Range are
divided into a number of exogamous clans, such as
Melakuttom, Kanakuttom, Thushamkuttom, Putha-
nikuttom, Kanayathukuttom, Ellikuttom. Members
of Kanakuttom and Melakuttom clans consider
themselves to be superior to the remaining 1 four
clans, and do not intermarry with them.
Melakuttom includes the Vakas or chieftains of
the Muthuvans. This clan is said to be superior to all
the other clans and members of this clan intermarry
only with those of the Kanakuttom clan. The mem-
bers of Thushanikuttom are also the vassals of the
Vaka. They also do manual labour for him. The
members of Kanayathukuttom clan are also vassals
of the Vaka., but they enjoy the special privilege of
putting up a thatti (elevated seat) for the Vaka to
sit on. The members of Ellikuttom have their own
Vaka at Kiliparambu. Among the Muthuvans of
Poopara, there are only three clans, Thushani-
kuttom, Kanayathukiittom, and Ellikuttom. The
Mel -Vaka of Molakuttom clan is recognized as
their chief, and he still receives the fines imposed on
delinquents. The Muthuvans of Kudakad in Anja-
nad have only two clans, Suryanayar and Arya-
nayar, and they are exogamous. They do not re-
cognize the Mel-Vaka as their chief.
Like those of the Kanikkar of South Travan-
core, the children of a Muthuvan family belong to
the clan of the mother. The husband is respon-
sible for the maintenance of his wife and children.
82 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. III.
The debts of children are a charge not on the father
but on the maternal uncle, and a man's debts devolve
s on his nephews (sister's sons). Male children are
named after their maternal uncle or grandfather;
daughters are named after their maternal grand-
mother or aunt. A man invariably marries the
daughter of his maternal uncle.
Vishavans
The Vishavans of Idyara valley are divided
into eight clans:
1. Kunnikkar 5. Ponneyankar
2. Alappankar 6. Pezhatikar
3. Marungathukar 7. Pokkankar
4. Thonnikar 8. Kraplikar
Sir Herbert Bisley classifies the names of exoga-
mous divisions as eponymous, territorial or local,
titular and totemistic. The clans of the Vishavans
are territorial. They are named after some village
in which the members of the clan originally resided.
Thus Maringathukar are those who came from
Maringath. Kraplikar are those who came from
Krapli. Groups of Vishavans occupied parts of
the Idyara valley and came to be known by the
name of the locality where they lived. Pezhatikar
are said to be indigenous. When they began to
decline in numbers, they contracted connections
with those in the Cochin State, and these came over
and settled in some parts of the Idyara Valley.
The Pezhatikar and Pokkankar consider them-
selves to be superior to the other clans and the
VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 83
headman is selected from these clans. This superio-
rity (iocs not, however, operate as a bar to inter-
marriage. The first three clans regard themselves
as belonging to one stock and so 110 intermarriage
is allowed among them. But they can intermarry
from the remaining five clans. Marriage between
cross-cousins is prohibited among them. A man is
free to marry any woman outside his clan and has
thus a wider choice of a mate. They state that this
prohibition is due to the fact that consanguinous
marriages are fraught with danger. This is in
accord with the views of Westermarck who says
that consanguinous marriages are more injurious
in savage regions where the struggle for existence
is often more severe than they have proved to be
in civilized society.
Uralis
The Uralis of Periyar and Vandamet are
divided into eight cxoganaous clans:
1. Kanakuttom 5. Enniyarikuttom
2. Vettikuttom 6. Periyilakuttom
3. Onakuttom 7. Kodiyarikuttom
4. Thuriyakuttom 8. Vayanavar- ''
* kuttom
Among the Uralis of Thodupuzha Range, there
are only four clans, Kanakuttom, Periyilakuttom,
Kodiyarikuttom, and Enniyarikuttom. The Uralis
of Neriamangalam have the four clans of Vayana-
varkuttom, Kanakuttom, Thuriyakuttom, and Peri-
yilakuttom.
84 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOEE [VoL. III.
There is a fanciful story of the origin of these
clans. The man who went trudging in the Kftnam
(high forest) belonged to Kanakuttom; those who
went clearing the way belonged to Vettikuttom ;
those who went easing themselves on the way be-
longed to Thuriy akuttom ; those who swept away
the refuse belonged to Periyilakuttom; those who
numbered the cut stumps on the way belonged to
Enniyarikuttom, and lastly, those who attended a
feast on Onam day belonged to Onakuttom. The
clans are exogamous and the children belong to the
clan of the mother, and are given names after those
of the members of the mother's clan.
The solidarity of the clan is evident in a variety
of ways. Members of the same clan consider them-
selves to be brothers and sisters. If a man dies,
all the clansmen observe pollution for 16 days in
Neriamangalam and 7 days in Thodupuzha. All
the clansmen contribute towards the expenses for
funeral ceremonies on the 15th and 16th day. If
a fine is inflicted on a man for an offence like adul-
tery, the members of the clan collect and pay the
fine. Lastly, all the members of a clan help a man
with seed and paddy, if he has a poor harvest.
Manndns
The Mannans of Maimankandam are divided
into two phratries, the Kandathu Burnakudi and
Chalugupattu TJrukar. The Kandathu Burnakudi,
Tekkada Ailavu, Mutlmvar Aravakudi, Kandamala
Panikudi, and Malakad Panikudi constitute one
phratry. The other phratry comprises Muppankad,
VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 85
Nagamala, Adakad Nagamala, Kodiyan Nagamala,
Afnbattan Nagamala, and Pannivirayan. The mem-
bers of a clan in one phratry can marry only a
woman from a clan of the other phratry. The
Kandathu Biirna Kudikars are superior to the < mem-
bers of the other clans. The Ambattan Nagamala-
kars arc barbers and are inferior to others.
In the Poopara Range, two phratries are
observed. One phratry includes the clans of Arava-
kudi, Muppaukad Nagamala, Edattupattu Uruga-
ran, Adakad Nagamala, Paimiviryan, Muthuvar
Aravakudi, and Unangathad Aravakudi. The other
phratry includes the clans of Thekkada Ailavu,
Rajakad Ailavu, Panikudi, and Malakad Panikudi.
In the Periyar Range, there are two exogamous
clans," Panikudi and Aravakudi. The Mannans of
Vandamet have the following exogamous clans of
Aravanktidi, Nattumannankudi, Thoprankudi, Eda-
dankudi, Panikankudi, Uraliyankudi, Maniyaran-
kudi, Ainakadankudi, Kumblaiikudi, and Kalkundal-
kudi. Some of the clans are named after places
where they live. A woman retains her clan after
marriage. A child follows the clan of the mother.
Malay arayan
The Malayarayans of Central Travancore are
divided into six clans. Vala illom are the descend-
ants of a man who presented bangles to the Ambala-
puzha chief (Vala means bangle); Enna-illom, of
a man who presented oil to the chief (Enna means
oil) ; Mundillom, of a man who presented cloth to
the chief (Mundu means cloth) ; and Puthani illom,
86 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. HI.
of a man who presented flowers to the chief (Puvu
means flower). Besides these four, there are also
Korangani illom and Panthirayira illom. The first
two clans claim superiority over the other. MundiL
lakars and Puthani illakars are Machambi illakars
to the members of the first two clans. The last two
clans are the lowest in social status.
In the Thodupuzha Range, they are divided
into the five clans of Puthani illom, Mala illom,
Nellipalli illom, Vala illom, and Modalikad illom.
To Mala illom belong the descendants of a man who
presented garlands to Cheraman Perumal, to
Puthani illom, of the man who presented flowers ; to
Nellipalli illom, of the man who presented paddy;
to Vala illom, of the man who presented bangles;
and to Modalikad, of the man who peered through a
hole unnoticed. Vala and Mala illoms are annan-
thambi or brother illoms, and a man of one of these
clans can marry a woman from Nellipalli, Modali-
kad, and Puthani illoms. Modalikad illom is said
to be inferior to the other illoms.
A Malayarayan is forbidden to marry a woman
of his own clan. A man's children belong to his
wife's clan, and' they are named after the maternal
grandparent, uncle or aunt. The tie of clan is as
strong as that of blood, since it creates a sense of
common obligations and common responsibilities.
In the case of the death of a member of a clan in
Thodupuzha, all the members of the same clan
observe death pollution for sixteen days, no matter
in which hamlet they stay. One of the traces of the
VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 87
old solidarity of the clan exists in the recognition by
every member of the clan of his duty to welcome
any other member, however unrelated, as his brother.
Malavetan
The Malavetans are divided into five endoga-
mous groups, the Cheruvetan, the Chingannivetan,
Elichathivetan, Tolvetan, and Valiavetan. The
Cheruvetans, who are otherwise known as Vettu-
vaiis, are found in and outside Kumaranperur
Reserve of the Rani Range. They comprise four
exogamous clans.
1. Venatanillom 3. Churalayar illom
2. Vendirillom 4. Modanadan illom
A man is free to marry a woman outside his clan.
A woman after marriage continues to be of her
own clan and the children belong to her clan.
Malankiiravcm
The Malankuravan is divided into eight exoga-
mous clans:
1. Menati illom 5. Thechira illom
2. Kara illom 6. Vayana illom
3. Kurunthadi illom 7. Venni illom
4. Pallikal illom 8. Onthi illom
The Menati illakars consider themselves to be supe-
rior to the other clans. Men of this clan take wives
only from Thechira, Venni, Kurunthadi, Pallikal,
and Kara illoms, but not from the other two clans.
Marriage within the clan is forbidden. A man
88 ' THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VOL. III.
marries the (laughter of his maternal uncle, but not
the daughter of his father 's sister, as she is reckoned
to be his sister.
Ullatan
The Ullatans who are found in the jungle are
divided into four exogamous clans:
1. Karancheri illom 3. Kavattu illom
2. Madapalli illom 4. Perakala illom
The illoms take after the names of places. The
Karancheri illakars came from Karancheri. The
first two clans form brother illoms and are exoga-
nious to the last two clans. A woman retains her
clan after marriage, and her children belong to her
clan. The father and son are never of the same
olaii. The clans have suffered extinction among the
Ullatans of the low country. Contact with civilized
men has dismembered the Ullatan clan system.
The Pulayas have a well developed system of
exogamy. The Kanapulayas are divided into two
phratries. Vadavathu kuttom, Mampalli kuttom,
Cherakat kuttom, and Adu kuttom constitute one
phratry, while Paliyana kuttom, Padathi kuttom,
Paruthi kuttom, Nedumattathu kuttom, and Nor-
kuttu kuttom form the other phratry. A man can
only marry a woman in a clan of another phratry.
A woman retains her clan after marriage. Child-
ren follow the clan of the mother who can take her
children with her in case of any quarrel between
her and her husband.
VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 89
Parana
The Minneketti Parayas are divided into the
following clans:
1. Kanjiram illom 7. Konchi illom
2. Thachan illom 8. Kovani illom v
3. Poonjeri illom 9. Mylai illom
4. Pey illom 10. Vayyotan illom
5. Velli illom 11. Cherunatan illom
6. Thazhakara illom 12. Nednngad illom
The Perum Parayan of the Poonjeri clan is said to
be responsible for the clan division. The Thachan
and Poonjeri clans are superior to all the other
clans. The clans are exogamous and descent is
exclusively through the females. The clan names
are derived from names of places.
Views on Exogamy
The wide distribution of exogamy and the
probable priority of female descent to that of male
descent were pointed out by McLennan. The re-
lation found to exist between a man and his sister's
children among the Muthuvans and the Mannans
may be a survival of the ancient system of matri-
archy, under which a woman 's children belonged
to her family, and her husband had no proprietory
right or authority over them. Under the system of
female kinship, there was no change of clanship
after marriage, and both the husband and the wife
retained their own clans, and the children belonged
to the mother's clan. This is the case among the
90 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVABTCORE [VOL. III.
Kanikkar, the Muthuvan, the Mannan, the Mala-
yarayan, the Vishavan, the Parayas, the Pulayas,
and others. Since the bride is taken to live "with
her husband wherever his residence may be, the
clans are spread all over the area. Their civili-
zation is based on the clan. The idea of the family
is said to be a newcomer to the field, and to be
struggling with the clan for influence. Its entrance
into the social life of the tribe as a patrilineal
institution may be accounted for by the rule that on
marriage a wife goes to her husband's dwelling
and makes her abode there. He does not go to that
of her kindred. Again, the woman is generally
married by purchase among the Pulayas, the
Malankuravans, the MalaviHans, and others. The
payment of a bride-price transfers to the husband
the exclusive possession of the wife, and the right
of the children that may be born of the union. But
the transfer of the children involves more than
their possession and control. It involves the
reckoning of descent from the husband and his
forefathers instead of from his wife and her fore-
fathers. The primitive tribes of Travancore have
not abandoned the old reckoning. All their clans
count their descent through the mother. As
Hartland puts it, "A clan is a natural mutual aid
society ".* Most of the clansmen contribute the
funeral expenses of a clansman and observe pollu-
tion for sixteen days. "The clan is still the pillar
of their social structure". The father as the head
of the new institution of the family is recognized
* The Frazer Leoturen 1922-1932 The Evolution of Kinship
by Sidney Hartland, pp. 10 J 5.
VOL. III.] EXOGAMY 91
as the ruler of the household. Though the children
are his, and remain with him, they do not belong to
his clan; and his control over them, even while
the mother is part of the household, is overridden
by the claims of her clan exercised through her
brothers. When a boy is to be married, the uncle
plays an important part in the settlement of marri-
age and the amount of the bride-price to be received
or given. The nephew also succeeds to the uncle's
property even now among the Muthuvans, the
Maiinfms, and others. The family was continued
through the mother. All rank and property descen-
ded through her. "In short, birth sanctified the
child".* Matrimonial descent is now fighting a
losing battle. Most of them are becoming patri-
lincal. ,...
The classificatory vSystem of relationship does
not appear to have been affected by the divisions of
a community into exogainous clans. The successive
division of a community into two, four, and eight
exogamous groups seems to have been intended
to prevent the marriage of relations of various
degrees. The division of a clan into two was adopt-
ed for the purpose of preventing the marriage of
brothers and sisters. Brothers and sisters belong-
ed to the same clan, and marriage between members
of the same clan was tabooed. Under the two
clan system, the exchange of sisters became the
regular mode of obtaining wives. Among the
Vishavans of Idyara Valley and the Ina Pulayas,
* The Frazer Lectures Tho Evolution of Kinship An African
Study by Sidney Hartland. pp. 10-15,
92 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. HI.
the number of exogamous clans was increased to
eight and this was probably done to prevent the
marriage of cross-cousins.
Westermarck is of the opinion that the custom
of naming the child after the mother is capable of
widely different interpretations. " Among savages "
he writes, "the tic between mother and child
is much stronger than that which binds a child to its
father. Moreover in cases of separation, occurring
frequently at the lower stages of civilization, the
infant children always follow the mother, and so
very often, do children more advanced in years.
In these circumstances, it is a matter for no wonder
if a child takes its name after the mother rather
than the father".* Travancore still furnishes an
example of a tribe in the hunting stage of Civiliza-
tion (Malapantaram) among whom children are
named after the father and descent is patrilineal.
* Ralph De Poinerai Marriage, Past, Present and Future, p. 20
A Muthuvan Bamboo comb.
CHAPTER VII
MARRIAGE
Introductory
Marriage is the joining together of a niaa and a
woman. Before marriage, the sexes are separated
by sexual taboo. At marriage they are joined to-
gether by the same ideas, worked down to their
logical conclusion in reciprocity of relation. Those
who were mutually taboo now break the taboo.*
Speaking generally, marriage is the source of the
family, the safe-guard of private and public morals,
the srength of the natioii.f There are everywhere
three motives which lead to marriage, mutual sym-
pathy, the desire for progeny, and the necessity
for mutual aid in the struggle for existence, t Pri-
mitive marriage was dictated by the inexorable
population need. Travancore is one of the ideal
places for the study of primitive marriage insti-
tutions.
It was conceived by Bachofen that the first
human society lived in promiscuous intercourse and
that monogamous marriage was reflected through
the matriarchate and the age of the Amazons.
"In all uncultured societies, girls and women, who
are not married, are under no restrictions as to
their sexual relations, and are held to be entirely
* A. E. Crawley, The Mystic Rose, pp. 287 to 286.
t Calvorton, Sex iq Civilization, p. 231.
t Oount Keyserlhig, Tho Book of Marriage, p. 54.
94 THE ABOKIOINES OF TKAVANCOBE [Vol.. III.
free to dispose of themselves as they please in that
respect. "* The almost universally accepted idea
was that the primitive state of mankind was one
of primal virtue and moral perfection. Anthro-
pological evidences in India lend themselves to
different interpretations. Sir Edward Gait says,
"On. the other hand, most of the aboriginal tribes,
both Dravidian and Mongolian, the low castes in
Kashmir and the Punjab Hills, and various low
castes in the United Provinces, Central Provinces,
Berar, and Southern India allow the utmost free-
dom between the sexes prior to marriage, "t Sir
William Crooke also says that with most of the wild
tribes, it is, in fact, a rule that, although prenuptial
intercourse is lightly regarded, misconduct with a
member of another tribe involves excommunication. $
Darwin and Spencer declared the improbability of
intercourse being ever free, since the passion of
jealousy is so strong that it cannot be supposed to
be dormant in primitive communities. Briffault
says that, "In India it may be said that , wherever
the practice of infant marriage has not been adopted,
sexual relations between the unmarried are either
openly or tacitly recognised. In Burma prenuptial
freedom is unrestricted in cultured northern
tribes. " He however admits that "the aboriginal
races of Southern India differ from those of Nor-
thern India in that they marry earlier. Conse-
quently, prenuptial licence is not so apparent as in
* Robert 3riffault The Mothers, Vol. II, p 2
T K. A. Gait India Census Report, 1911, p. 243.
J Briffault, The Mothers, Vol. II, p. 21.
$ Do. Do. p. 43.
VOL. III.] MARRIAGE 95
the northern aboriginal races who marry in adult
age. M * My researches in Travancore go to show
that there is not a single tribe in which prennptial
intercourse between the sexes is permitted. Some
of the hill-tribes like the Muthuvans, the Mannans,
and the Kanikkar go to the extent of taking special
precautions to prevent such intercourse. They keep
separate dormitories ,where unmarried young wom-
en sleep at night under the surveillance of an
elderly woman.
Forms of Marriage
The form of marriage varied from time to time
and from society to society. The earliest form of
marriage is marriage by capture. A relic of this
custom is found among the Muthuvans and the
Mannans. A peculiar practice among the Muthu-
vans is that, after the marriage is settled, the
bridegroom forcibly takes away the maiden from
her mother's house, when she goes out for water
or fire-wood, and lives with her separately for a
few days in some secluded part of the forest. They
then return home, unless they are in the meanwhile,
searched for and brought back by their relatives.
Among the Mannans also, it sometimes happens
that a woman, if she refuses to return the love of
a man, is forcibly taken away by him. They then
live together in the forest for ten or twelve days
and are searched for and taken to the hamlet. The
offence is generally condoned and they are allowed
to live as husband and wife. Elopement is also a
* Brjft'auit, The Mothers, Vol. II, p. 46.
96 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VOL. III.
recognised institution among them, and is resorted
to if parents object to the union of a man and
woman. Marriage by capture is found among the
Malayalis of North Arcot, the Mullukurumbans of
Wynad, and the Gonds of Central India.
Marriage by service is an earlier form of
marriage by purchase. It is prevalent among the
Paliyans and the Mannans. Among them, the
bridegroom lives with his future father-in-law for
six months to one year, and renders service to him
before the marriage is consummated. The same
custom is found among the Esquimo, the North-
American Indians, and the Siberian peoples. It
is a substitute for marriage by purchase, where the
purchaser is too poor to pay the bride 's price.
Marriage by purchase is the recognised form of
marriage not only among the least civilised races,
but also among peoples who have reached the
higher degree of culture. The bride's price which
is generally given to the father goes to meet either
wholly or partly the expenses of the marriage.
Tt is found among the Mnlavetaiis, the Malan-
kuravans, the Thantapulayas, and the Malapulayas.
A portion of it goes to the mother and the maternal
uncle and aunt among the Thantapulayas. Some-
times marriage by purchase may not be really so,
for the bridal gift may be an expression of good-
will or ability to keep a wife and may serve among
the Malavetans and Malanknravans as a protection
to the wife against ill-usage, and to the husband
against misbehaviour on the part of the wife.
VOL. III.] MARRIAGE 97
Marriage by exchange of sisters is found among
the Uralis, Ullatans, the Vishavans, and the Mala-
pantarams. No man can have a wife unless he
has a sister whom he can give in exchange. A
man cannot purchase a wife from her parents by
giving the equivalent in property of some kind.
The age of the girl to be given in exchange is ftf no
consideration. Any Urali who has no sister to
offer in exchange has to lead a life of single bles-
sedness. This custom prevails among the Madigas
of Nilgiris, the Bhotiyns of Almora, and some tribes
in Beluchistan.
Cousin Marriage
The marriage of cross-cousins is characteristic
of all the tribes except the Vishavans and the Ina-
Pulayas. It appears to originate in the simplest
of economic motives the wish and necessity to pay
for a woman in kind. "Formerly the match bet-
ween a brother's daughter and sister's son was
most common. This is said to be a survival of the
matriarchate, when a man's sister's son was his
heir."* Marriage between a man and the daughter
of his maternal uncle is prevalent among the Muthu-
vans, the Mannans, and the Malankuravans, but
marriage with the daughter of his father's sister
is prohibited. Marriage between ortho-cousins is
tabooed. Among the above mentioned tribes as well
as among the Malapantarams, the Malavetans and
the Malayarayans, a father desires and claims the
marriage of his son with his sister's daughter.
* Fraiier, Folklore in the Old Testament. Vol. II, p. 120.
98 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VOL. III.
According to Briffault, the idea of distance and
ignorance of the tribe in other localities with whom
they can enter into conjugal relations may be another
reason. In his opinion, girls are never given in
marriage to young men in distant places. This is
the case among the primitive tribes of Travancore.
Cross-cousin marriage not only keeps the families
together, but also prevents disposal of property.
In a society where inheritance runs through the
females, a father wishes to provide for his son,
and generally marries him to his sister's daughter.
Outside Travancore, the custom is found among
the Irulas, the Kurubas, and other tribes.
Monogamy
Monogamy had its human origin among the
poor. Chastity in woman has always been esteem-
ed as a virtue by man, and monogamy has always
been a desideratum. Most of the hill-tribes are
monogamous, and the family is regarded as the
corner-stone of society. Weddings generally take
place at night among the Malayarayans, the Mala-
pulayas, the Muthuvaiis, the Mannans, the Pali-
yans, and the Malapantarams. Sight is a method
of contagion in primitive science, and the idea
coincides with the physiological aversion to see
dangerous things, and with sexual 'shyness, and
timidity. Dr. Westermarck's view is that this cus-
tom is due to a desire to protect the bride and bride-
groom against dangers from above.*
* Crasvley, The Mystic Rose, p. 296.
VOL. III.] MARRIAGE 99
Polygamy
" That man is by nature polygamous and woman
monogamous is biologic rot and has no more sanction
than the Divine right of Kings, and will eventually
go into the same discard"* says Dr. Dorsey. Poly-
gamy marks the end of primitive equality and' the
disappearance of clan distinctions. It develops in
a society where private property is an institution.
Polygamy is prevalent among the Muthuvans, the
Paliyans, thb Kanikkar, the Malayarayans, the
Malapulayas and the Pulayas to a limited extent.
According to Westermarck, "one factor that influ-
ences this form of marriage is the numerical pro-
portion of the number of available males and fe-
males. Whenever there is a marked or more or
less permanent majority of marriageable women
in a savage tribe, polygamy is allowed. At the
lower stages of civilization every man endeavours
to marry when he has reached puberty and practi-
cally every woman gets married M .f Among the
Pulayas, the females do not exceed the males. The
number of females for every 1000 males is 973
according to the Census of 1931. The real reason
for polygamy is then of economic or social character.
It contributes a man's material comfort or increases
his wealth through the labour of his wives. It also
adds to his social importance, reputation, and autho-
rity. Among the western Pulayas, it is said that
before a Pulaya dies, he says "Oralum Olakayum
Elayakutiyum marumakanu". By this declaration,
* G. A. Dorsey, Why We Behave Like Human Beings, p. 437.
t Westermarck, The Future of marriage i n Western Civilization'
100 THE ABORIGINES OF TEAVANCOBE [VoL*. III.
the nephew of the Pulaya inherits the mortar
and pestle and the youngest wife of his uncle.
He keeps his aunt as his wife. This custom has
almost died out. Among the Garos, it is said
that the nokrong who is usually his sister's
son comes to live in his house as the husband of
one of his daughters and when he dies marries
also his widow.* Polygamy was widely prevalent
among the Uralis, among whom marriage is by
exchange of sisters. Formerly, a Urali married
as many women as he had sisters. The result is
unequal distribution of women as wives between
the males of the community, the old men having
more than the young, who had to go without any.
Now polygamy is practised by them to a limited
extent. It is a sign of plenty. Only those who can
afford it will go in for the luxury of having more
than one wife.
Polyandry
According to Westermarck, polyandry depends
a great deal on the proportion between male and
female population, and polygamy where women
constitute the majority in countries unaffected by
European civilization. There are more men than
women among the Malapulayas, the Malayarayans,
the Uralis, and the Paliyans. It is said that,
where food is abundant, females exceed males.
Where food is scarce, males exceed females. This
holds good among the above tribes, among whom
there are more males than females owing to scarcity
of food.
* Hcdann, T. C , Census Ethnography, 1901-1931, p. 41.
VOL. III.] MARRIAGE 101
Polyandry is of two kinds, the matriarchal
where the husbands are not related, and the fra-
ternal, where they are brothers or cousins on the
father's side. In the case of the former, the
husbands are recognized as lovers and lose their
privileges at the pleasure of the woman,, The
matriarchal type is found among the Karavazhi
Pulayas, the Plateau Muthuvans, and the Mannans.
Fraternal polyandry merges into monogamy by the
steady growth of the rights of the eldest brother.
It now exists in a community where motherkin is
the rule. This form of polyandry is due to poverty
and the desire to avoid large families. It prevails
to some extent among the Malayarayan, the Ullatan,
the Paliyan, the Urfili, the Southern Pulayas, and
the Parayas. Matccr observes that the Uralis
practised polyandry like the Todas. It is now
becoming extinct. Polyandry may be traced to
various causes. It may serve to check the increase
of population in regions where the number of mouths
remain adapted to the number of acres. It keeps
family property intact where the husbands are
brothers. Poverty and paucity of women may be
a combined cause of polyandry.
Levirate and Sororate
The custom of marrying the deceased brother's
wife is called levirate. The corresponding custom
of marriage of deceased wife's sister is called
sororate. The two customs are found complemen-
tary among the Uralis, the Ullatans, and the
Mannans, while levirate is only practised by the
102 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [Voi>. III.
Malayarayans and the Kanikkar. The Malavetans
practise neither levirate nor sororate. Dr. Fr after
thinks that the two customs are traceable to a
common source in the form of group marriage.
Westermarck does not concur with this view.
Widow Marriage
Widow marriage is permitted among the primi-
tive tribes of Travancore. Where widow marriage is
allowed, the general rule is that thie deceased
husband's brother takes her as his wife. This is
true of the Kanikkar , the Muthuvans, the Mannans,
and the Ullatans. Marriage with the elder brother
of the deceased husband is found to exist among
the Malapulayas and the Malayarayans.
Pre-puberty Coition
Pre-puberty coition after marriage is permitted
among the Vishavans, the Kanikkar, and the
Chingannivetans. Early coition is believed to be
detrimental to health and fecundity. It will weaken
the reproductive functions and cause abortion.
This is probably one of the causes of the prevalence
of abortion among the Kanikkar.
Marriage Ceremonies
Besides the usual exchange of clothes and tying
of tali (marriage badge), the commonest of mar-
riage ceremonies is eating and drinking together.
The Karavazhi Pulaya bride-groom and bride sit
facing east on a mat. Food is served on a leaf in
VOL. III.] MARRIAGE 103
front. The bridegroom gives a ball of rice to the
bride. She in turn gives one to him which he eats.
Among the Malapantarams of Pathanapuram, the
bride's father joins the right hand of the bride to
the left hand of the bridegroom, and says,'* I hand
over my daughter to you. Take care of her." The
couple are seated on a mat when four balls of rice
are brought in a leaf by the bridegroom's sister.
The bride hands over two balls of rice to the bride-
groom who eats them. He then gives two balls
of rice to his wife which she eats. This mutual
inoculation by food is the strongest of all ties and
breaks the most important of sexual taboos, that
against eating together. Each gives to the other
part of himself and receives from the other a
part of him. This effects union by assimilating
the one to the other, so as to produce somewhat
of identity of substance. When the act is done, its
sacramental character is intensified.* Again, the
rudimentary ceremonies like joining of hands pub-
licly have, according to Malinowski, some inherent
force and an importance as sanctions. It is a
ceremonial pre-representation of the actual union
in marriage, assisting the union by making it safe
and making it previously, and, as it were objectively, f
Among the Kanikkar of Kottur, there is a slight
variation of this custom. One of the modes of
mutual contact is the pressing together of the heads
of the pair. The couple are seated on a mat, and
rice and curry are served on plantain leaf. Then
* Crawley, The Mystic Rose, pp. 348-350.
t Do Do. Do.
104 THE ABORIGINES OF TKAVANCORE [VoL. III.
two women take hold of the bride's head and press
it seven times against her husband's shoulders.
This over, the bridegroom takes a small quantity
of rice and curry and puts it seven times into
the mouth of his wife.
Among the Malayarayans, the couple are seated
on a mat after the usual exchange of cloths and tying
of tali. The bride's brother then gives her a betel
leaf which she tears into two. She then changes
hand and is then asked to give one half to her lover.
She then chews one half. They are asked to spit
in the same spittoon. The chewing of betel consti-
tutes the essence of marriage. The couple then
cat off the same leaf. Among the Jena Kurubas
of Coorg there is the exchange of betel leaves and
nuts which concludes the nuptials. The chewing
of betel leaves by the couple constitutes the essence
of marriage among the Minihasas of Celebes and
the Balans.
The Muthuvans have another interesting cus-
tom. Marriage takes place in the evening in the
bride's hut, when the parents of the girl cannot
be spectators of the ceremony. The bridegroom
presents among other things a comb of golden
bamboo to the bride which forms the essential part
of the ceremony. It is always worn by a woman
above the knotted hair on the back. This custom
also prevails among the Mannans. The wearing
of the comb has a wide geographical distribution.
It is found among the Kadars of the Cochin State,
VOL. III.] MARRIAGE 105
the Australians, the Semangs of the Malay Penin-
sula, the Sakais of Perak, and the Oraons of Chota-
Nag'pur. It is a remarkable phenomenon that the
distribution of the comb follows the distribution of
the bamboo.
Adultery
The chastity of a woman is highly valued. Any
breach of chastity used to be very severely punish-
ed. Among the Kanikkar of Kulathupuzha, it used
to be the custom that, if a man committed adultery,
his legs were tied up to a branch of a tree. Straw
was spread over the ground and it was smoked.
The man's body was swung to and fro and he was
given 24 lashes. The woman was given 121 lashes.
The Kaiiikkar of Kottur tie up 101 twigs of tamarind
tree into one, and the adulterer is given one lash
with it. It is considered equivalent to 101 lashes.
The Malapulayas tie up both the guilty man
and woman to a Mullu-Murukku tree (Erythrina
stricta) which is called Vambumaram. The hands
are tied to the tree with fibre. Both are given 12
lashes with a twig of tamarind. If a Paliyan
committed incest the offence was heard by the
Village Council. The culprit was formerly punished
by being kept in stocks for a day. This is now
given up. Punishment now takes the form of a fine.
The culprits among the Malavetans are beaten and
are fined 10 fanams each. The offence is shared
by the panchayat of 16 men who restore the woman
to her husband. Speaking generally, adultery is
106 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBB [ VoL III.
looked upon with abhorrence. Divorce is freely
had by man or woman for trivial reasons like
iiNiompatability of temper, sterility and others.
Influence of Civilization on Sexual Chastity
Contact with higher culture has proved perni-
cious to the morality of primitive peoples. Irregu-
lar connection between the sexes has, on the whole,
exhibited a tendency to increase with the progress
of civilization, for it would seem according to
Heape, highly probable that the productive power of
man has increased with civilization. The Mannans,
the Paliyans, and the Malapulayas have become
demoralized by contact with the planting community.
Thantapulaya puberty ceremony.
CHAPTER VIH
TABOO
Introductory
Taboos, according to Freud, are ancient pro-
hibitions which at one time were forced upon a
generation of primitive people from without. These
prohibitions concerned actions for which there exis-
ted a strong desire. This view is not shared by
Crawley, as it appears to be improbable ethnolo-
gically as it does physiologically.* Taboo forms the
basis of society among the primitive peoples of
Travaiicore. It exists among them in all its pris-
tine strength and forms a good example of the re-
ligious character of early society. The primitive
conception of danger, so characteristic of early ri-
tual, appears in two forms, the predication of evil
influences and the imposition of taboos. These ap-
pear with greater force with persons at their sexual
crisis, that is, at puberty, during menstrual periods,
pregnancy, and after chil^-birth. All contacts are
regarded as contagious. The avoidance of contact
is the most prominent feature attached to cases of
taboo, when its dangerous character is obvious.
In fact, the connotation of 'not to be touched' is
the salient feature of taboo all over the world.
Puberty Cu&toms
At puberty, it is a wide-spread custom that
neither sex may see the other. "With the appro-
ach of puberty, the sexual question appears, which
Eruoat Grawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 77.
108 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. III.
emphasises the separation, both natural and taboo,
and, at the ceremonies of initiation, boys are
formally taken away from the mother's sphere and
female associations. The danger now enhanced by
a new instinct produces the very common custom
that from this time boys may not sleep even in
the house or with the family. A common form of
this custom is the institution of public buildings
which combine the features of a dormitory and a
club for the use of young men, so that they may
not see nor may have any association with females. "*
Such dormitories exist among the Muthuvans and
the Maniians, as contact with women is dangerous,
causing weakness and effeminacy.
"The motive for the restraints so commonly
imposed on girls at puberty is the deeply engrained
dread which primitive man entertains of menstrual
blood. He fears it at all times, but especially on its
first appearance ; hence the restrictions under which
women lie at their first mensturation are usually
more stringent than those which they observe at
any subsequent recurrence of the mysterious flow."f
The maiden at puberty must not see males nor be
seen by them, nor have any association with them,
first for their own safety, because it is the male
sex in the abstract which causes her trouble and
danger, because contagion from them is dangerous,
secondly for the safety of the men who by contagion
of her accentuated femininity would be injured. It
is the dangerous results of the association with the
* Eruost Crawly, Th Mystic Rose, p. 185.
t Fraser, The Golden Hough, p. 60 *"
VOL. III.] TABOO 109
other sex that are guarded against. To obviate this
danger, a girl at puberty is lodged in a seclusion-
shed about 100 yards from the main hut for 16
days among the Malapantarams. The period varies
from three days among the Muthuvans to four days
among the Mannans, and the Malavetans, seven
days among the Malayarayaiis, the Vishavans, and
Malaiikuravans, fourteen days among the Mala-
pulayas, and 15 days among the Paliyans. The
seclusion-shed is about 50 feet from the hut among
the Vishavans, and the distance varies to about
100 yards among the Malapantarams.
The Vishavan girl at puberty bathes twice a
day unseen by men and then alone is served with
food. Elephants and wild animals may damage the
crops, .if this injunction is broken. The Muthuvan
girl at puberty remains beyond the gaze of the men
in the seclusion-shed for three days. During day
time a Paliyaii woman keeps indoors and avoids
the sun. She moves freely at night. On the six-
teenth day she bathes and returns home with a
pan of water on her head. She cooks rice in this
pan, which is served to all the women of the hamlet.
She is then free from pollution. A Mannan girl
at puberty remains in the seclusion-shed for four
days. On the fifth day she bathes, and a new cloth
is presented to her. She again remains in seclusion
for four days at home, so that there may be no
harm to anybody.
Among the Uralis, when a girl attains puberty,
she is lodged in a remote tree-house reserved for
the purpose for seven to twelve days, until the
110 THE ABOBIGINES OF TKAVANCORB [VoL. III.
menstrual discharge ceases. If it ceases after
seven days, she bathes on the eight day. She then
moves oh to a second tree-house in the vicinity,
and remains there in seclusion for two days. On
the third day, she bathes and returns home when
seven jack leaf spoons of liquid cowdung and oil
are poured over her head by her uncle and brother
in front of the hut. According to Crawley, an
analogous custom is said to prevail among the
Veddas of Travancore,* but I cannot find any
corroboration of this view.
The Thantapulaya girl at puberty remains in
the seclusion-shed for fourteen days, when she
has to cook her food in a new earthenware vessel.
She bathes on the fifteenth day before sunrise when
she is made to sit facing east. A medicine-man
stands on each side and sings. The girl gets
possessed and swings her head backwards and
forwards to a tune beaten on a bell-metal vessel.
The girl faints after some time. She is then given
tender cocoanut water, and recovers. Pollution
then ceases. Among the Chmgannivetans pollution
lasts for nine days. Ten pots of water are poured
over the head of the girl by the aunt both morning
and evening. On the tenth day, the girl bathes
in a stream and wears a new cloth. She is then
taken home, when liquid cowdung is sprinkled over
the hut and compound. The girl makes a mark
of cowdung on the forehead of all those present,
and presents each with a bowl of gruel. Pollution
* Ernest Crawl oy, The Mystic Kotte, p. 53.
VOL. III.] TABOO 111
then ceases. When a Paraya girl in North Tra-
vancore attains puberty she is lodged in a seclusion-
shed for twelve days. During this period she
remains indoors. If a man sees her, she is said
to become bloodless and emaciated in appearance.
If she sees a man, he is said to get black spots on
his face. She bathes on the thirteenth day and
breaks a cocoanut. Pollution then ceases and she
returns home. A few women are feasted.
Menstruation
According to Pliny, the touch of a menstruous
woman turned wine into vinegar, blighted crops,
killed seedlings, blasted gardens, brought down the
fruit from the tree The object of seclu-
ding women at menstruation is to neutralise the
dangerous influences which are supposed to emanate
from them at such times.*
The Malapantarams regard women in menstru-
ation as being in a mysterious religious state which
necessitates the imposition of restriction and safe-
guards. A woman in menstruation remains in a
seclusion-shed for seven days. It is about a hun-
dred yards from the hut. Women alone keep com-
pany. During this period the husband is forbidden
to ascend a hill or climb a tree for gathering honey.
He should keep indoors and should not handle any
implements. Woe befalls him, if he acts differently.
The mode of removing contagion is purification by
bathing at the end of the period of pollution. It
is said that, when Kattayan's brother was going
- Bough, P-606~~~ '"
112 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL.. III.
with his uncle and three others among whom there
was a woman in menses, she was snatched away
by a tiger near Achencoil.
The separation of the sexes is most prominent
among the Uralis of the High Ranges. A woman
during monthly periods remains secluded in a tree-
house remote from their habitations until discharge
ceases. The husband cannot approach the tree-
house, but sends her provisions. When discharge
ceases, she bathes and goes to a second tree-house
in the vicinity. She remains there for two days.
On the third day she bathes and goes home.
The separation of the sexes during menstru-
ation is a characteristic feature of all the hill-tribes
of Travancore. To the primitive man, menstruous
women are dangerous. "The obvious vehicle is
contagion of blood. To exclude them from the
world so that the dreaded danger shall neither
reach them nor spread from them is the object of
the taboos which they have to observe. These
taboos act as electrical insulators to preserve the
spiritual force with which these persons are charged
from suffering or inflicting harm by contact with
the outer world."*
Child-Birth
Among the primitive people, the phenomena of
birth and disease partake of the mysterious and
supernatural, and our ancestors sought to protect
themselves from the operation of such contagious
forces by a system of isolation and taboo, f Since
* Frazer, The Golden Bough, p. 22B.
f Ralph D'3 Pom ;rai. Marriage, Past, Present and Future, p. 36.
VOL. III.] TABOO 113
pregnancy and child-birth sometimes cost a woman
her life and involve a certain amount of weakness
and suffering, they seek to protect themselves from
that contagion. Like the Bribri Indians, the Mala-
pantarams regard the pollution of child-birth as
much more dangerous than that of menstruation.
When a woman feels that the time is approaching,
she informs her husband who makes haste to put
up a shed for her in a lonely spot about two or three
hundred yards away from the hut. Pollution lasts
for sixteen days. During this period, her husband
cannot do any work. He keeps indoors. He can-
not go out for hunting or gathering honey. Chi-
dambaram tells me that, when once his father's
brother went out to procure food after his wife's
delivery, he was attacked by a bear which bit him
on his 1 loin and hand. One Narayanan climbed a
tree for gathering honey, but he fell down and
collapsed.
At child-birth a woman is taboo among the
Uralis. When a woman is about to become a mother
she goes to the tree-house remote from the habi-
tation. She is not even assisted by women in
delivery. They give assistance at a distance.
Even after delivery, women do not approach her
and render any help. Pollution lasts for twenty-
one days. During this period, the husband re-
frains from doing any work. She bathes on the
twenty second day and goes home. The separation
of the sexes is prominent during child-birth among
the tribes, and a woman is lodged in a seclusion-
shed.
114 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. III.
When a Par ay a woman is about to become a
mother, she is confined to a seclusion-shed for
sixteen days. During this period, the husband
lives on toddy and beaten rice. The Western
Pulaya also lives on toddy and beaten rice for ten
days and must take no other food. It is said that
when a Nayadi woman is attended by female re-
lations for delivery, her husband massages his
own abdomen and prays to the mountain gods for
the safe delivery of his wife. He offers his thanks
to them as soon as the child is born. This custom
is not observed in Travancorc.
One of the reasons why the actual birth of a child
and menstruation are considered dangerous is that
blood is regarded as the life force, it being held
that the soul or spirit is in the blood, and as it is
believed that, "because of her fertility, a woman
is more highly charged with this mystical force than
a man, the slighest contact with feminine blood
is regarded with utmost horror/'* During men-
struation and child-birth, women actually suffer
from physical sickness. Hence man will dread
being infected with these disabilities.
It may be observed that the main line of
development of ritual is from insulation of evil
influences to the conciliation of beneficent powers.
The dangers feared are insulated during the pro-
cess of the function as is the natural course, then
at the end of the function, the expulsion of the
danger is performed for the last time, and is of a
purificatory character. The practice of performing
Mlalph On PomiMrai, Marriage, Past, PrcHent and Future, j, 37.
VOL. III.] TABOO 115
the chief ceremony at the end of a functional crisis
is more sure of continuance, because the danger
is then usually over, and the ceremony cannot be
easily discredited.
Relation of Taboo to Agriculture
The sway of customs looks more powerful
among people in the earlier stages of culture. The
Ullataiis lead a pure life during the period of early
agricultural operations from December to April.
Since they remain in the domain of Sasta and other
hill-deities, they abstain from all sexual intercourse.
It is said that a man who touched his wife in
menses, and went to hoe up the soil, lost his eyes.
It is also said that the shadow of such a man falling
on a crop in the field will not only blight the crop
but also be detrimental to life. Similarly, a woman
should not enter the paddy fields after new moon in
Karkadagom. Women are not allowed to touch
the crop lest their touch should blight it. The
Malayarayaus also abstain from sexual intercourse
from November to January. If a woman in menses
goes near the work spot, the yield during the year
will be poor. She has to observe seclusion for
seven days. The Vettuvaiis lead a pure life in
March, August, and September, as any action to the
contrary will imperil their crops. Among the
Uralis, a man does not mate with his wife for three
days after jungle-clearing is started. Should a
man approach a woman before cessation of menses,
the crops are blighted and disease does great harm
to the village. A Malapant&ram avoids sexual
intercourse the night previous to his going out a
116 THE ABORIGINES OF TKAVANCORE [VoL. HI.
hunting. The idea seems to be that, while contact
with women transmits female weekness, the reten-
tion of the secretion in which strength is supp6sed
to reside assures vigour and strength. It is feared
that some mishap will arise if this injunction is
broken.
The religion of primitive man contains many
instances of taboo. The Malapantarams, the most
backward of the hill-tribes, take a bath in a stream,
if polluted, and then alone go into the jungle. If
they fail to bathe they incur the wrath of the gods
who punish them with sickness. The idea seems
to be that "a man who has been on a journey may
have contracted some magic evil from the strangers
with whom he has associated. Hence, on returning
home, before he is admitted into the society of his
tribe and friends, he has to undergo certain puri-
ficatory ceremonies."* Women are excluded from
religious worship and festivals among the Mala-
pulayas, and the Paliyaiis, as they are considered
impure. Among the Malapulayas a man refrains
from sexual intercourse with his wife for ten days
prior to any ceremony performed in honour of
any deity . Similarly, as the Malayarayan, the
Ullatan, and the Malavetan have to move in the
domain of Sasta and other hill-deities, they refrain
from sexual intercourse from January to April.
" Man's superstitious fears are found to be in the
exact ratio of his ignorance. " His whole world
swarms with evil beings. Unless propitiated, they
endanger the produce of his labours in the field.
* Fraxcr, The Gl<ku Bough, p 197.
VOL. III.] TABOO 117
Danger is supposed to inhere in the strange and
unknown. Every thicket, every watering place,
and all rocky places abound with evil spirits. Man
needs to walk warily in these circumstances, and
he seeks to protect himself by the observance of
prohibitions and by making offerings to the spirits.
CHAPTER IX
INHEUITANCE AND SOCIAL. ORGANIZATION
Importance of Survival
Dr. Tylor postulates that the study of the
principles of survival has 110 small practical import-
ance and that insignificant as multitudes of facts
of survival are in themselves, their study is
effective for tracing the course of historical deve-
lopment through which alone it is possible to
understand their meaning. Following the lead of
Dr. Tylor, the British School of anthropologists
attach great importance to survivals of mother-
right as a means of tracing the development of
human institutions, and the accumulation of a large
store of facts has led them to conceive that
mother-right represents the original state of human
society, and that where existing societies are
patriarchal, their mother-right has been preceded
by an earlier institution on a niatriliiieal basis.
Travancore affords a veritable mine of information,
as polyandry of the matriarchal and fraternal type
has been prevalent among the Proto-Australoid
and Dravidiaii peoples with its accompanying form
of inheritance, the mother- right. It may be said
in parenthesis that father-right has been silently
replacing mother-right with the impact of fresh
culture among the primitive tribes.
The importance of survivals does not receive
much attention 011 the continent of Europe, while
they are ignored by the American anthropologists.
When maternal descent was first trotted by
Bachofen, such a usage implied the former sove-
VOL. III.] INHERITANCE 119
reignty of the female sex. According to Lowie,
this belief is now gracing the refuse heaps of
anthropological science; and the belief in the uni-
versality of mother-right, which has been an article
or faith with British scholars, has been seriously
questioned except by Morgan, who believed that
Bother-right has priority to father-right. - Tylor
relied on such survivals of custom as levirate and
couvade for conceiving the idea of universality of
mother-right. These data are not, according to
Lowie, sufficient to warrant the above view. He
thinks that mother-sibs and father-sibs have grown
out of sibless organization. Leo Frobcnius ob-
serves, "that there was a time when in certain parts
of the world patriarchal and matriarchal institutions
existed separately and were in their own terri-
tory . the decisive, determining, and motivating
cultural factors. At one time the two extensive
regions comprising the interior of Asia and the
interior of Africa (including Eastern Europe)
must have been patriarchal; that is to say, the vast
steppe lands were patriarchal. The Mediterranean
Country and those of southern Asia lying between
the two expanses, that is to say, their coasts, were
at the same time under matriarchal sway. Patri-
archy, in its least modified form, is still prevalent
among the Africans of the Steppes."*
The hypothesis now accepted by the anthro-
pologists is that, among the earliest savages who
lived by hunting, the man took his wife to himself,
and that the husband, wife, and children all wander-
ed together forming a patriarchal family.
** G Mint ICoystfrliug, The Book O f Marriage, Loo Frobenius, " Marri-
ago and Matriarchy," p. 99,
120 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVA^CORE [VoL. III.
There was no well-defined system of inheritance
among them, as there was nothing to inherit, but the
relationship that existed was patriarchal. My
researches in Travancore tend to the same viepr.
One section of the Malapantarams, who lead tm
life of nomadic hunters, affords an example 01
this earliest form of patriarchy. When the savage
passed from the hunting to the agricultural stage,
patriarchy developed into matriarchy.
According to Westermarck, the ordinary custom
of savages is that the dead man's property is
inherited by his own children, if kinship is reckoned
through the father, and by his sister's children,
if kinship is through the female. The right to
inherit a dead man's property was certainly co-
extensive with the duty of performing his obse-
quies and offering sacrifices to his spirit. It is
interesting to observe that the nephew is the chief
mourner among the Thantapulayas, and he observes
pollution for 16 days. The wife and children do
not observe any pollution. Inheritance is in the
female line among them. It is the same among the
Muthuvans and the Mannans among whom mother-
right prevails. Among the Kanikkar the nephew
washes the corpse above the waist, and below this
region the son washes it. It is a mixture of matri-
archy and patriarchy among them, as it is among
the Malavetans and the Paliyans. Among the
TJralis the nephew is the chief mourner even now,
but the children of the dead man inherit the property,
because they have been in joint possession of it.
The nephew is the chief mourner among the
VOL. III.] INHBIilTANCE 121
NayadLs. He observes pollution f.or sixteen days,
while the son and mother observe it for ten days.
Sons now inherit the property. A similar change
has come over the Eastern Pulayas.
The evolution of family transformed the system
if inheritance of property, but left that of dignity
s ?ntouched. In every primitive community age is
a source of reverence and influence. Considerations
of fitness therefore made it desirable to entrust
the management of common interests of the family
to the eldest and most experienced member, and
this has produced collateral inheritance by brothers.
Among the Muthuvans a man's property goes to
his elder or younger sister's son with the reservation
that the property is first enjoyed by his younger
brother before it passes to his nephew. Debts
are inherited by the nephew as property is. The
Maimaiis have the same type of inheritance. Out-
side India, it prevails in Sumatra, where property
aiid rank are enjoyed by brothers, before they pass
to sister's children.
Inheritance of Widow
Tne inheritance of the widow of a deceased
man is placed in the same category as property.
The cliin of the mother to subsistence out of her
husband's property makes her remain with her
sons. These claims are, according to Starcke,
connected with the customs that include her in her
brother-in-law's inheritance. A Mannan marries
th'e widow of his deceased brother. Among the
Western Pulayas, it is said that before a man dies,
he says', "CWalum Olakkayum Anantharavanu. ' '
122 THE ABORIGINES OF TKAVANCOBE [VOL.. HI.
By this declaration, the nephew of the Pulaya in-
herits the mortar and pestle, and the youngest
wife of his uncle. He keeps his aunt as his wife.
This custom has now died out.
McLennan asserts that brother's inheritance
both of widow and property occurs, where polyandr r
has been previously practised, but other anthro-
pologists, like Starcke and Westermarck, dissent
from the view. They consider it irrational to seek
for causes of connection between a widow and her
brother-in-law in polyandry, and the exercise of
marital right in a husband's life time would only
become a necessary condition if carnal considera-
tions formed the corner-stone in the development
of the family. The life and habits of most of the
primitive tribes of Travancore do not justify the
conclusion, as their customs were not formed under
the influence of considerations of enjoyment.
"Man" says Humbolt, "ever connects on from
what lies on hand." The notion of the continuity
of customs and civilization embodied in this state-
ment is no barren maxim. To begin with, men
lived in families, inheritance being patrilineal. As
they grew in size with the growth of tribal feuds,
they lived in aggregations, producing patrilineal and
m-atrilineal institutions. American anthropologists
believe that father-right evolved without an inter-
mediate stage of mother-right, and that matrilineal
peoples imposed their rules on patrilineal peoples.
Mother-right exists among some of the primitive
tribes of Travancore, but its days are numbered
owing to the impact of modern civilization.
VOL. III.] INHERITANCE 123
Social Organization
.The rigidity of the village organization of the
primitive tribes is due to their long isolation, their
narrow outlook on life, and close inter-marriage for
countless generations. They generally live in small
groups of families called kudi (village). Each
viilage is even now an independent unit, and consists
of an average of ten to fifteen families bound to-
gether by the idea of self -protection.
Malapantaram
The Malapantarams are in the hunting stage
of civilization. Their low economic condition is
reflected in their simple organization, which has
little cohesion because it must be prepared to break
up when its food supplies decrease even a little.
The larger the extent of territory necessary for the
supply for a given community, the looser the connec-
tion between the land and people, and the lower
the type of social organization. In Pathanapuram,
where they are under more civilizing influences,
they have a head-man called Muppan.
Kdnikkdr
The Kanikkar living in a village are knit
together by social, religious, and political ties.
The village is the unit in all matters, and there is
no room for the play of individualistic tendencies.
Villagers work jointly in clearing jungle, burning
debris, and in all magico-religious ceremonies
performed for securing a bountiful harvest. The
headman (Muttukani) used to wield considerable
power in the past and settle all their disputes.
124 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [Voii. HI.
Muthuvan
The Muthuvans of Neriamangalam have Mel-
Vaka as their chief. Kiliparambu forms his head-
quarters. He has now nominal jurisdiction over
the Muthuvans of Poopara and Anjanad. The^
jurisdiction of Mel-Vaka extends over a tract of
land covered by Pothiduku in the north, the Cheriar
in the south, and Anamudi in the east. Inferior in
status to Mel-Vaka is Muthfikka. Porkukudi forms
his headquarters. Both the Mel- Vaka and Muthakka
belong to the same clan, Melakuttom, The members
of the IftUikuttqm clan have their own Vaka, the
Valath,raka and PaVtliraka who enjoy the same
status among them as the Vaka of other Muthuvans.
Wl;ien the village council meets to decide a case of
adultery, all the Vakas meet. The Mel-Vaka has
the most elevated sent. The Muthakka has Ids
seat a little lower. Still lower are the scats for
Valathraka and Palithrfika. If a fine of Rs. 2-8-0
is inflicted, the Mel-Vaka gets Rs. 1-80 and Muthak-
ka gets Re. 1-0-0.
On the Cardamom Hills, each village has its
own, headman. Their supreme lord is Mel-Vaka.
Reference are made to Miippan, a dignitary lower
in rank. If his decision is not satisfactory, the
Mel-Vaka is appealed to, and his decision is final.
Under the Mfippan comes the Talayari who exercises
jurisdiction over a group of 2 or 3 villages. Then
follow the Kularan, and the Sundarapandi who are
equivalents of village chiefs. The office is here-
ditary and descends to the nephew.
Perumparayan.
VOL. HL] INHERITANCE 125
Manndn
Among the Manuaiis, village affairs are regu-
lated by a council of elders with a headman chosen
by the villagers. Chieftainship is hereditary and
descends to the nephew. The chief has a lieutenant
called Rukslmsan, and under him there are Bother
dignitaries, known as Valia-Elandari, Elandari,
Tlmndakaran, and Thannipatta in the order of their
rank. Mannans build huts, cultivate the land,
harvest the crops, and store them in tree-houses
for their headman. These privileges are shared
by Bak&hasan and Valia-Elandari.
Malayarayan
The Malayarayans have a council of elders
to look afer their common interests. Ponamban
and Panikkan, having equal status, are the main
limbs of the council. The office of Ponamban is
conferred on a deserving member by the Poonjat
chief, and is not hereditary. The office of Panikkan
is hereditary, and descends from the father to the
eldest son. The headman is responsible for the
welfare of the people in his care. Each TJllatan
hamlet has a chieftain called Kanikkaran. The
office descends from father to son.
UrdUs
The Uralis have a headman called Kanikkaran
for a group of hamlets. Each hamlet has a platlu
or medicine-man who is responsible for the good
conduct of the men therein. When disputes arise,
126 THE ABOBIGINES OF TBAVANCOBB [VOL. III.
the Plathi informs the Kanikkaran, who presides
over the meeting of the village council and settles
the dispute. No fine is inflicted on the delinquents.
Paliyan
The Paliyans have a Kanikkaran (headman)
for each hamlet. He is assisted by a Valia Elandari^
a Veena-Mariya, and Thandakkaran. The first two'
are in charge of unmarried boys and girls and are
responsible for their good behaviour. The village
council discusses and settles any dispute arising
in the village. The Malankuravans have a village
council presided over by a Urali (headman). The
Malavetaus have a headman called Stani who settles
all their disputes. The office is hereditary and
descends from uncle to nephew (sister's son). The
Pulayas and Thantapulayas were slaves of the soil
till 1854, when they were emancipated. Even now,
their condition lias not undergone any material im-
provement. Their masters settle their disputes.
Pulaya
The Kanapulayas have a complete village orga-
nization. Public affairs are regulated by an assem-
bly of elders who decide caste disputes and punish
delinquents. The Aikara Yajamanan is their reco-
gnized leader. Subordinate to him are the Vallu-
vans whose jurisdictions extend over particular
villages or desoms. An assembly composed of
these heads and chieftains sits in judgment
on the erring Pulayas. In addition to these, the
landlords under whom they serve as agricultural
labourers exercise a good deal of influence in the
VOL. III.] INHERITANCE 127
settlement of caste disputes. The Valluvan is the
headman and priest of the tribe. He prides himself
on five privileges:
1. the long umbrella, i. e., the umbrella
with a long handle.
2. the five coloured umbrella. *
3. bracelets.
4. long ear-rings.
5. a box for keeping betel leaves.
He is called Vallon or Valiyavan in the Cochin State.
He is the supreme judge and law giver and is res-
ponsible for the good behaviour of his people. His
staff consists of a Kuruppan or Accountant who
assists the Valluvan in the discharge of his duties,
a Komarfittan or devil-dancer, a Kaikaran, a Vadi-
kkaraii who brings the parties to a suit, keeps order,
and inflicts punishment. The Komarattan exists
only among the Kanapulayas. We have here a
complete picture of village organization on a terri-
torial basis as it existed in the past. It has almost
vanished now.
Par ay a
The Parayas have a headman called Perum
Parayan. He is the master of the ceremonies in
times of adversity. He enquires into all caste dis-
putes, and settles them. He has an assistant called
Munnainan to help him in his work.
Custom was a unifying factor among primitive
peoples. But contact with people of the plains des-
troyed the complex web of customs and institutions
128 THE ABORIGINES OP TRAVANCORE [VOL. III.
which made up tribal life. The control of the
hill-tribes by the Forest Department has tended
to the diminution of the influence and importance of
the village chieftains, who are now mere shadows of
their former selves. Frequent access to the people
of the plains has weakened the taboos and their
social solidarity.
CHAPTER X
THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD
Introductory
Burial and cremation are the two common
methods of disposing of dead bodies. They are
very ancient customs and there is evidence to show
that both methods were practised in the Vedic period
in India. The epithet, 'agnidagdha', according
to Macdonell and Keith, applies to the dead who were
burnt on a funeral pyre. They also refer to
'paroptah* or * casting out' and 'uddhitha* or
6 exposure of the dead 7 . They add that burial was
not rare in the Rig- Vedic period. In the Vedic
period both customs appear in a modified form.
A stone is set up between the dead and the living
to separate them.*
Tamil works, such as Manimechalai, Tolkap-
piam, and Poruladigaram written about the second
century, A. D., refer to the following methods of
disposing of the dead in Pre-Brahmanic period:
1. Exposure in an open space to be eaten
by Jackals.
2. Cremation.
3. Throwing the corpse into natural pits.
4. Covering the corpse with big earthen
jars.
5. Burial.f
* L). A. lao&ouzie Indian Myths and Legends Introduction
pp. XXXII to XXXIII.
f M. Srinivasa Iyeru:ar Tamil Studies, p. 39.
S
130 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VOL. III.
Most of the primitive people of Travancore
bury the dead. Burial has for its object the
prevention of the ghosts from tormenting the living.
The devices intended to prevent the return of mali-
gnant spirits are manifold. Among most of the
tribes of Travancore, a stone is planted at the
head and foot of the grave.
Sometimes, a grave is enclosed with a fence too
high for the ghost to cross particularly without
a run. Such an enclosure has the additional advan-
tage of marking the place as taboo. This is said
to be the origin of the stone circles strewn on the
High "Ranges of Travancore. Among all the tribes
great care is taken over the toilet of the corpse.
The dead body is washed and well dressed in new
garments, for the dead must enter the spirit world
in the best array.
Malapantdram
The Malapantarams adopt the simplest form
of burial. The dead arc buried where they die.
After burial, the tribe leaves the locality and will
never return to it. The Muthuvans bury the dead
about a mile from the hamlet. The grave is dug
waist-deep for men and breast-deep for women, the
reason being that men are brave and free from
danger only if the corpse is buried deeper in the
ground. The corpse is covered with a new cloth
purchased by the son or sister's son, and after it
is lowered in the grave, the chakmuk (fire-making
apparatus) and the turban are placed by its side.
The grave is covered with earth and a small stone
is planted at the head and foot. A thatched shed
VOL. III.] THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD 131
is erected over it. Pollution lasts for 30 days.
In Deviar Valley, the medicine-man imagines that
the grave is the body of Surya (sun), and passes
a whiff of air through the hollow of his hand. After
the grave is covered with earth, he conceives it to
be the skin of Surya, and passes another whiff of air
through the hollow of his hand. He then imagines
that the stone planted at the head is the head of
the sun and passes another puff of air through the
hollow of Ids hand. He then imagines that the
stone planted at the foot is the big toe of the sun,
and passes another puff of air. The idea is that
the sun is guarding the dead, and that no wild
animal will do any harm to the dead. If these
ceremonies arc not performed, it is said that the
tiger will taste the flesh of the dead and come and
kill the people of the village.
Orali
The Uralis also bury the dead about a furlong
away from the hut. The depth of the grave is about
the same as a man's height for men, and woman's
height for women. The chief mourner is the nephew
who washes and dries the corpse. It is covered with
a new cloth. A new cloth is also tied round the
loins. It is then placed over a reed mat and tied
with Kaivan fibre (Helicteres Isora) and carried
to the grave. Billets of wood are placed in the
pit cross-wise and over them a plaited bamboo is
placed. The sides of the grave are also lined with
bamboo. The corpse is then lowered into the grave
and a plaited bamboo is placed above it. A com-
plete coffin is thus formed. The chewing materials
132 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVABTCORE [VOL. III.
and bill-book of the deceased are placed in the right
arm pit of the deceased. Green leaves are then
thrown into the grave and the pit is covered with
earth. A stone is placed at the head and another
at the feet, and one on each side. Each is about
two feet long and one foot broad. The plaited
bamboo is used only in the case of males. In the
case of a woman dying after delivery in a tree-house,
men dig the grave for deceased, but women carry
the body to the grave and bury it. It is said that
men will get ill and provoke the anger of the gods
if they do it.
Paliyan
The Paliyans bury the dead about a mile from
the hamlet. The grave is dug breast-deep for
women and loin-deep for men. The corpse is placed
in the grave on a reed mat and is covered by it.
The grave is then filled with earth. The Vishavans
adopt a simple form of burial. The grave is about
a mile away from the hamlet and is dug in the east
to west direction. The corpse is placed on a new
mat, tied up, and carried to the grave suspended
on a pole. The corpse is laid on its back in the
grave, the head being at the western end and the
feet at the eastern end of the grave, and the head
is propped up so that the face looks eastwards.
A bamboo mat is placed over the corpse and the
pit is filled with earth.
Malayarayan
The Malayarayans of Central Travancore inter
the dead about 20 to 40 yards to the south of the
A Muthuvan temple-
VOL. III.] THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD 133
habitation. The eldest son and oldest nephew of
the deceased go round the site selected for the burial
three times, strewing rice and fried paddy. They
then remove three shovels of earth from the site
with their face turned away from it. The grave is
then dug four feet deep. The grave diggers are
not allowed to carry the corpse. Wrapt in a new
cloth, the corpse is lowered into the grave. All
the mourners then throw earth into the grave three
times, standing with their back turned to the corpse,
then wheel round and fill the grave with earth.
Small pebbles are placed at the sides of the grave
and a big stone is placed at the head and at the
feet vertically. The Mannans too bury their dead.
The corpse is wrapped in a new cloth purchased by
the nephew, and carried to the burial ground on a
bier. The grave is dug hip deep in the case of men
and not so deep in the case of women. The corpse
is lowered into the grave with the head turned
towards the south. The grave is filled up with
earth and a thatched shed is erected over it to
protect it from rain.
Ulldtan
The Ullatans bury the dead. The deceased's
brother-in-law digs the grave. Before the corpse
is removed from the hut, the floor is swept and
the sweepings are thrown on the bier to drive away
the spirit of the dead. After burial, a stone is
planted at the head of the corpse. The Malapulayas
also bury the dead and plant a stone at the head,
the breast, and the feet.
134 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. III.
Kanikkar
The Kanikkar living on the northern side of
the Kothayar bury the dead. Formerly, burial
was done at a distance, but it is now done about
50 yards from the hut. Burial is resorted to with
a view to avoiding the terror felt by the living for
the spirit of the dead and the fear that it may
return to alarm the surviving fellow-tribesmen.
The medicine-man gives holy ash to the grave-
diggers before they go to dig the grave, and they
put a mark on the forehead to ward off evil spirits.
Otherwise they may be prevented from digging
the grave. Meanwhile the nephew washes the corpse
above the waist, and the son washes it below this
region. Gaiija, betel, and tobacco are put^ into
the mouth of the corpse to appease the soul of the
departed. A mat is spread over the grave. The
nephew and the son carry the corpse to the grave.
It is taken round it three times and gently lowered
into it. The grave is then filled up with earth by
the son and the nephew.
The wife plays an important part in the funeral
ceremony among the Kanikkar of Kottur. She
accompanies the corpse to the grave with a dishful
of rice gruel, a spoon, and a sieve. As soon as the
corpse is lowered into the grave and covered with
earth, she comes forward and deposits the articles
at the feet of the corpse. A thorn of Smilax Zeyla-
nica is pinned to the grave one at each end and one
in the middle. The thorn is intended to cow down the
spirit of the dead. In the vicinity of Kulathupuzha
VOL. III.] THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD 135
three stones are planted, one at the head, one at the
feet, and one in the middle. By the side of each stone
is planted a thorn of Smilax Zeylanica. Some beaten
rice, fruits, fried rice, pan chew, and water are laid
by the grave near the feet for the spirit of the de-
parted. Two feet away from the grave, the way is
closed on their return by drawing three lines over
which three pebbles are laid on each line.* Three
ithorns are planted over another line to prevent other
spirits from going to the grave and snatching away
the spirit of the deceased. The above precautions
coupled with chants are intended to suppress the
vagrant tendencies of the dead. Early man thinks
that it is the corpse that may come back and harm
the survivors and that it should be kept down by
physical moans. The Kaiiikkar to the south of the
Kothayar cremate their dead.
The Malavdtans bury the dead about a mile
from their habitation. Before removing the corpse
from the hut, the floor is swept and the sweepings
and the broom arc placed on the bier to drive away
the spirit of the deceased from the house. The
son and the nephew are the chief mourners. After
bathing, all the mourners make a mark on their
foreheads with cowdung paste. The Thantapulayas
used to bury the dead, but they have now begun to
cremate them. The nephew is the chief mourner
and he observes pollution for sixteen days. The
wife and children observe no pollution. In case
the nephew fails to perform the ceremony, the son
performs it, but observes no pollution.
136 THE ABOBIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL.. III.
The Nayadis bury their dead. The nephew is
the chief mourner. Pollution is for sixteen days
for the nephew, and ten days for the son and mother.
On the tenth day a quarter measure of rice is cooked,
and three balls of rice are placed on a leaf over the
feet of the dead at the burial ground. The nephew
claps his hands thrice; crows then fly over the spot
and eat the balls. The chief mourner then returns
home after bathing, when a feast is given tc
relations.
Conclusion
An examination of the funeral ceremonies of
the tribes shows that perfect pandemonium centres
round the corpse.* Great importance is attached
to the proper disposal of the dead. The idea is
that the dead would walk unless the body is dis-
posed of with appropriate ceremony. If there is
no propitiation, the restless spirit of the deceased
will walk among them and bring sickness, want, and
ravages of wild animals. The attention bestowed on
them sprang not so much from affection as from
the fears of the survivors. The dead are buried
with all the paraphernalia which belonged to them
in life. Everything belonging to the dead was put
out of sight and buried with him, for it was
feared that a. man's personality haunts over his
possessions after death. All the tribes lead a pure
life during the period of pollution, and refrain from
sexual intercourse, ordinary work, and amusements.
Faruell, Evolution of Religion p. 104
ft)
a
6
a
VOL. III.] THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD 137
According to Bendon, the universal attitude towards
the corpse is mystical and supernatural, and to the
relations of the dead, a separation from it is alarm-
ing.* According to Thotwell, the potency of the
mysterious is the fundamental historical basis of
all religion.!
* Bendon, E., Death Customs, p. 84.
f Th>>tw3ll. The Religious Revolution of tlie Day, pp. Ill -112.
CHAPTEE XI
EBLIGION
Definition of Religion
Westermarck defines religion as "a belief in,
and a respectful attitude towards, a supernatural
being on whom man feels dependent, and to whr^se
will he makes an appeal in his worship."* with
primitive man, "religion is a part of his custom.
It is his whole custom."! The religion of the
primitive tribes of Travancore may be described
as a system of animism or spiritism, and their
attitude to the supernatural is one of reverential
fear in the presence of certain mysterious super-
natural powers and beings who must be propitiated
or conciliated to avert ill-will.
The theory of animism divides itself into
two great dogmas forming parts of one consistent
doctrine, first, concerning souls of individual crea-
tures capable of continual existence after the death
or destruction of the body; secondly, concerning
other spirits upwards to the rank of deities.J
Animism in its fullest development includes the
belief in souls, in a future, and in controlling deities
and subordinate spirits, these doctrines practically
resulting in some kind of active worship. The
concept of personality is fluid and vague. No
images of spirits are made, and there are no temples.
* Westermarck The Origin and pevelopmew of Moral ideas,
Vol. II, P.
t Marott Anthropology, p 213.
t Risley The People of India,,p. 222.
?v &"''! "*:> zllt'
till f 1- ** 1 ^ . ! ,T( jLhjFjk, ,'* '-1 - * ' \
'
VOL. III.] RELIGION 139
As for the village deities, one or more groves consti-
tute their shrine. Stones are employed as symbols
of deities among the Malayarayans.
The village priest is generally the headman who
attends to the propitiation of village deities and
spirits. The office is hereditary, the nephew succeed-
ing to it. While it is the headman who officiates as
priest among most of the tribes, there is a plathi or
medicine-man among the Kanikkar and the Uralis
who cures all ailments and practises the black art.
Propitiation is congregational and is intended to
restore man's confidence, when shaken by crises.
Harmonius relations are maintained by supplica-
tions, prayers, offerings and sacrifices. The com-
munity as a whole, represented by the village elders,
constitute the priesthood for the propitiations of
the deities and spirits, although the headman con-
ducts the rites. The elders are the recognised
custodians of tribal traditions and customs. The
ideal of their life is to live on friendly terms with
the gods and spirits, to possess sufficient lands,
crops, and cattle, to be free from debt, and to have
enough to eat and live.
The hill-tribes of Travancore have a hierarchy
of deities and spirits:
1. The Sun.
2. The Ancestor Spirits.
3. Village deities and Spirits.
4. Hunting deities.
5. Tramp spirits.
140: THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [ VOL. III.
The Sim
The worship of the sun is confined to the
Muthuvans, the Uralis, and the Kanikkar. Every
Muthuvan worships it in the early morning daily
by raising his hand to his face. It is probable that
the worship of the sun may have at one time formed
a prominent part of their religion. The Uralis
recognize the sun as the creator of the universe and
the father of all souls. The Kanikkar call the
sun Bhagavan of all and reckon it as a female.
Early at sunrise, they x>lace in front of their huts
a lighted lamp, fruits, beaten and fried rice. They
then pray: "Oh Gods, pray accept our offerings."
They then partake of the offerings.
Ancestor Spirits
Ancestor-worship is one of the great branches
of the religion of mankind. In India, it comes to
the surface in all directions, and its principles keep
up the social relations of the living world. Accord-
ing to Tylor, the dead ancestor, now passed as deity,
goes on protecting his family and receiving suit
from them as of old. Ancestors are therefore con-
sidered as kindly patron spirits, at least to their
own kinsfolk and worshippers.
Ancestor-worship is prevalent among most of
the primitive tribes of Travancore. Among the
Malayarayans of Central Travancore appear wide
and deep trace's of a surviving cult of ancestors.
In the region of the Malayarayans, "there are many
ancient tumuli in these hills, evidently graves of
VOL. III.] RELIGION 141
chiefs, showing just the same fragments of pottery,
brass-figures, iron weapons as are found in other
similar places. These tumuli are often surrounded
with long splintered pieces of granite from 8 to 12
or 15 feet in length set on end with sacrificial aitars
and other remains, evidently centuries old. Numer-
ous vaults called Pandukuri are seen in all their
hills. They stand north to south, the circular open-
, ing being to the south ; a round stone is fitted to the
aperture with another acting as a long lever to
prevent its falling out ; the sides, as also the stones
at the top and bottom, are single slabs. To this
day, the Arayans make similar little cells of pieces
of vstone, the whole forming a box a few inches
square ; and on the death of a member of a family,
the spirit is supposed to pass, as the body is being
buried, into a brass or silver image, which is shut
in this vault: if the parties are poor, an oblong stone
suffices. A few offerings of milk, rice, toddy, and
ghee are made. A torch is lighted and extinguished,
the figure placed inside the cell, and the covering
stone hastily placed on; then all leave. On the
anniversary day, similar offerings are made, the
stone is lifted off and again hastily closed. No one
ventures to touch the cells at any other time.* The
Malayarayans of the present day do not erect
dolmens over the dead. Ancestor-worship is now
confined to persons who are killed by a tiger or wild
elephant, or who meet with an unnatural death. A
metallic effigy continues to be made in the case of
Matcer, Native Life in Travancore, pp. 7475.
142 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VoL. III.
unnatural deaths. A small box of stone is made of
verticals and capstone opened in front on ceremonial
days.
Among the Kanikkar, ancestor-spirits are
legion. Sangaii Perumal Muthan, Nllambi Muthan,
Muthala Muthan, and Echa Muthan and others
make up 101 spirits of ancestors. When a man is
terrified by wild animals like bears or wild elephants,
he at once comes back and solicits the aid of the
medicine-man, who takes some small pebbles and
places five stones in a row in honour of Gariapathi.
He then holds some pebbles in his right hand and
drops them in pairs into his left hand to ascertain
whether Echa Muthan is responsible for the incident.
If an even number remains in the right hand, the
same process is repeated to ascertain whether Puli-
ehavu is responsible. In this manner is found 'out
the true spirit responsible for the incident. These
spirits are propitiated by offerings to Pulichavu,
Anachavu, and Pambuchavu to intercede on behalf
of the terrified man and save his children.
The Muthuvans make offerings to ancestors in
January. A pongal is offered by the side of clothes,
beads, rings, and bangles. Clothes are to propitiate
male ancestors, and bangles and beads, female an-
cestors. The prayer is to the effect, " Oh parents,
grandparents, and great grand parents, protect us.
We shall propitiate you every year." Among the
Vishavans, intoxicants and stimulants are objects of
veneration, besides cooked and fried rice. The
deification of drink is due to its exhilarating and
^_^
VOL. III.] BELIGION 143
invigorating effects. The dead still receive worship
from the larger half of mankind. Spencer and
Grant think that the worship of the dead is at the
root of every religion. The spirits of the dead
are worshipped, because they are capable of influ-
encing the welfare of the living, in a mystei'ious
manner.
Village Deities and Spirits
Men distinguish two classes of phenomena,
natural and supernatural, between the phenomena
they are familiar with, and in consequence ascribe
to natural causes, and the other phenomena which
seem to them unfamiliar, mysterious, and there-
fore supposed to spring from causes of a super-
natural character. We meet with this distinction
at the lower stages of culture known to us as well
as higher stages. Mystery is the essential charac-
teristic of super-natural beings.
The worship of the spirits of particular local
hills or other awe-inspiring natural objects falls
under this category. The existence of an in-dwell-
ing spirit, is dimly recognized, and in others, an
immanent power of mysterious energy of the nature
of mana is believed to exist. The worship of this
class of supernatural powers is said to stand bet-
ween religion and magic. The Malay ar ay ans wor-
ship four eminences, Thalaparamala, Azhamala, Pu-
thiamala, and Savamparamala. They do not sepa-
rate the spirit from the matter, but adore the thing
in its totality as a divine being. The Ullatans also
144 THE ABOKIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. III.
make an annual offering to Thalaparamala, TJdum-
paramala, and Chakkiparamala. The offering con-
sists of fruits, beaten rice, milk, sugar, and molasses,
and is made on the hills. They believe that it is due
to the help that they receive from them, that they are
able to live in the jungle without molestation. The
Malapantarams dread the jungle deities. If a man
gets polluted, he bathes and then alone, goes into
the jungle. Those at Thalapara worship crests
of hills, Kotangi, Vettamala, Kottamala, and Mu-
thanmala. They make a respectful bow when they
pass by them and say, "Oh Hill, save us from
mishaps." The Muthuvans, the Paliyans, and the
Mai ankur avans make offerings to eminences. We
find a replica of this custom in all parts of the world.
Among the American Indians, Dorman points out
that remarkable features in natural scenery or
dangerous places become objects of superstitious
regard and veneration, because they are supposed
to be the abode of gods. A high mountain or an
isolated peak is looked upon with superstitious
respect and propitiated with offerings.
Among the Sambavars of South Travancore
it is to the village deity that the whole body of
villagers turn for help, when pestilence, famine,
or cattle disease make their appearance. The main
function of the village deity is the guardianship of
the village. The leading principle is the worship
of the female principle in nature. All over South
India the village deities are mostly female, but some
of them have male attendants who are supposed to
guard the shrine and carry out the commands of
Madan.
VOL. III.] BELIGION 145
their goddesses. The chief miiistrants are drawn
from the villagers. They were formerly worshipped
with animal sacrifices. There is no ecclesiastical
calendar regulating the forms of worship of village
deities or festivals. Where there is a shrine in a
hamlet, offerings of rice, fruits, and flowers are
made by villagers. In many places, offerings are
more usual after harvest. Sacrifices are made
whenever there is an epidemic.
Hunting Spirits
When a party of Muthuvans return with the
spoils of the chase, the carcase is suspended over
fire for the removal of hair. In the case of black-
monkey, its liver, hands, and feet are cut into slices
separately. They are then pierced by five thin
stakes, and roasted by being suspended over fire,
after which they are placed over a leaf. The follow-
ing prayer is then offered: 'Must as my parents,
grandparents, and their ancestors went in quest
of food and lived by the spoils of the game, I wish
the same luck for myself. If I am blessed, I shall
offer you a share of the spoils before they are
tasted by anybody else." The slices are then dis-
tributed among those present. The remaining
portion is then divided equally among all the village
folk. The Kanikkar also propitiate the hunting
spirits, Sankaramalla Muthan, Pulichavu, Patanaya
Muthan, before they go out hunting. When an
animal is killed, the skin is first peeled off. The
heart and lungs are cut into slices, roasted in the
fire, and then placed on leaves. They then pray
146 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCORE [VoL. III.
as follows: "When we go into the jungle, pray
let us have game easily. If you do not kill and give
them to us, we will conclude that there are 110
Mutharis." The slices are then eaten by those
who are present. The remaining flesh is divided
equally among all the village folk. An analagous
custom is found among the Ullatans of Travancore
;;nd the Oraons of Chota Nagpur.
Tramp Spirits
Tramp spirits include mischievous spirits of
persons who died an unnatural death. Pandara-
chavu, Arutalichavu, Nayfit Aruvala, and Murthi
are some of the tramp spirits of the Ullatans. An
offering of fried rice, flesh of Sambar, fowl, arrack,
and toddy is made in front of the yard of a person
obsessed by such a spirit. The priest goes into
a trance and holds the tuft of the afflicted person,
who also goes into a trance. The priest exclaims,
"I shall leave this person." All then partake of
the offerings.
Among the Malayarayans, a metal effigy is
made of a person who has met an unnatural death.
A small box of stone is made of verticals and a
cap-stone. The metal image is placed inside it.
It is worshipped on Sankramam days in Vrischigam
and Medam annually.
Startling events are ascribed to the activity
not only of visible but of invisible supernatural
agents ; sudden or strange diseases are at the lower
stages of culture commonly supposed to be occa-
sioned by a supernatural being, which has taken
A Kanikkar paddy flat at Nedumangad.
Terraced cultivation of the Muthuvan in Anjanad.
VOL. ill.] RELIGION 147
up its abode in the sick person's body or otherwise
sent the disease. The Muthuvans are worshippers
of malevolent deities like Karuppu, Mariamma,
and Kali, whose business it is to bring drought,
disease, and death. They are propitiated to protect
the people from smallpox. The priest may be a
woman at times.
Influence of Hinduism
Hinduism may be defined as animism more or
less transformed by philosophy, or to condense the
definition, as magic tempered by metaphysics.
According to Lyall, Hinduism may be roughly des-
cribed as the religion of all the people who accept
the Brahmanic Scriptures.* The Muthuvans show
signs of Hinduism in their religion. They worship
god Subramania. In each village is a thatched shed
put up away from the habitations. Inside is a
bamboo thatty, over which are placed a cane and a
bundle of peacock's feather. These arc emblematic
of god Subramania, who is also known as Palani-
aiiclavar. The Malayarayans, the Mannaiis, and the
Kanikkar have modified their animistic practices in
the direction of orthodox Hinduism. It is a very
interesting fact that all the hill-tribes worship Sasta,
whose worship betrays many features of animistic
practices.
On their march to Sabarimala, votaries of
Sasta offer fried rice and molasses to the crags
on the bed of the Peruthode stream, which are
* Rialey The People of India p. 283
148 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. HX
supposed to be the resting places of Sasta and his
followers. Another custom refers to the worship
of all stones on the way from Kottapadi to Sabari-
mala. The natural object is worshipped, because
it is believed to possess supernatural power, but
it is never the less the object itself that is wor-
shipped. In other words, they do not separate the
spirit from the matter, but adore the thing in its
totality as a divine being.
On reaching the Azhutha river, the votaries
camp there for the night. The river is worshipped as
a deity, which fills their imagination and receives
their homage. At Kallidamkunnu, all the Kanni
Ayyappaiis throw a pebble on the crest of the hill.
This is intended to press down the personality of an
Asura who haunts the hills so that he may not come
out and do harm to them. The animist who endows
an inanimate object with a soul regards the visible
thing itself as its body. He finds it easier to wor-
ship a material thing* which may be seen than a
hidden God, however perfect its shape.
According to Robert Briffault, the function of
primitive religion is much more direct, concrete,
and practical. Its purpose is not to interpret life,
but to obtain those things which are reckoned
needful to its existence.
A Malapantaram climbing a tree for gathering honey.
CHAPTER XII
OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE
It has been said that social and Religious
progress has spread or is spreading from the sea
inland and not in the reverse direction. This is
true of the primitive tribes of Travancore. Along
high way communications, the Kanikkar are under
more civilizing influences and have adopted a stabler
mode of cultivation in the vicinity of Kulathupuzha.
In less accessible areas in Neduvangad and Vilavan-
code, they are less open to foreign influences and
more tenacious of their old ways. They are here
nomadic agriculturists and their whole energy is
consumed in an ever increasing struggle for bare
existence. In the uplands, cultivation is migratory.
In the 4owlands, it is permanent. On the hills,
rice is grown on the dry system. The coincidence
of the dry system with migratory cultivation is not
accidental. This method of cultivation occupies
the greater part of their time and leaves hardly any
time for the satisfaction of their other needs. The
Vishavans, the Muthuvans, the Mannans, the tJralis,
the Paliyans, and the Malayarayans are nomadic
agriculturists.
The Malapantarams alone are in the hunting
stage of civilization. Their simple and monotonous
savage economy permits of no concentration of
population. The smaller the number, the easier is
150 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBB [VOL. III.
the food assured. Primitive man at the outset had
no tools, and his hand was the first tool. Gradually,
with his hand he learned to make a number of tools to
increase his food supply. It is said that the earliest
groups were very small. Since most of the food
secured was seized and eaten on the spot, it might
be supposed that food gathering was an individual
enterprise. Professor Karl Bucher calls this first
stage in human economy, "the individual searcti
for food." The Malapantarams may be said to be
on the borderland of this stage. A very effective
bar to progress was caused by the migratory cha-
racter of the hunting community which depended
on the seasonal movements or scarcity of game.
Their habitations were of a flimsy and temporary
character, the social organization was loose, and
the use of the bow and arrow was found among
most of the tribes.
Migratory Agriculture
vXhe migratory habits of the jungle tribes still
continue among the Muthuvans, the Mannans, the
Vishavaiis, the Uralis, the Paliyans, and the Kanik-
kar.^)Thc Malayarayans and the Ullatans have
fixed habitations known as hamlets consisting of
a few flimsy huts. The first mentioned tribes(are
compelled to change their hamlets owing to the
exhaustion of the soil/){For further advance, it is
necessary to learn how to gather abundant sub-
sistance from a given habitat so as to make per-
manent villages possible. This necessitated some
improvement in tools.) It is said that the digging
VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CTJLTTJEE 151
stick is the beginning of agricultural implements,
the progenitor of the hoe, the spade, and the plough.
The digging stick is still used by the Malapaii-
tarams, the Vishavans, and the Malavetans.
Terraced Cultivation
(,
The Muthuvans have also terraced cultivation
in the Anjanad Valley. Ward and Conner speak
of " numberless little glades, some adapted to rice
cultivation, scattered along the hilly table that
overlooks the valley, whose inhabitants are never
tempted to settle within this space."* Semple
states that a mountain environment often occasions
a forced develoment in the form of agriculture
among people who otherwise still linger on the
outskirts of civilization. This is true of the Muthu-
vans who have been in the Anjanad valley from
the second century A. D.
The Thantapulayas, Malavetans, the Malan-
kuravaiis, arid the Malapulayas live by the sweat
of their brows. Most of the tribes evoke the ad-
miration of the people of the plains by the manner
in which they climb trees and collect honey. They
also collect minor forest produce and give them to
the contractor who supplies them with rice and other
articles of food. They also take part in the cap-
ture of elephants on the hills.
* Ward and Conner Memoirs of tho Survey of the Travuncoro
and Cochin States p. 159-
152 THE ABORIGINES OF THAVANOOBE [VOL. TTT.
Effect of Clash of Culture
The preliterate people of Travancore are found
in the recesses of the hills. In spite of their re-
ceding into the interior forest, they have been
brought into contact with the people of higher cul-
ture, firstly on account of improvement of com-
munications and modes of travelling, secondly
through the influence of markets, and thirdly through
the work of missionaries. Sanitation is badly want-
ing in the hamlets of the hill-tribes. Some of them
bury their dead about a hundred yards from their
huts. The wearing of clothes is said to be the worst
of all the evil customs introduced by civilization.
It has created among them a flesh consciousness and
the virtues of concealment, the two sign-posts of
civilization. They purchase second hand clothes on
the hills and wear them without change until they
rot to pieces. The education that is imparted to
them undermines superstition and causes th|eir
disorganization. It tends to produce idlers and
non-producers, and thereby causes economic waste.
One of the causes of deterioration is said to be
the advent of modern implements and methods.
The improved implements have enabled them to
save manual labour in their avocations. The Kanik-
kar, the Muthuvans, and others, who have been
using a wooden hoe for hoeing the soil and the
digging spud for digging up wild tubers and roots,
have taken to the use of the axe, the pick-axe and
the mammatty.
P&raya industry.
VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE 153
The Kanikkar and the Mutlmvans who were
formerly adepts at the use of the bow have now
become the proud possessors of fire-arms. Changes
have also come about in their food. Coffee is being
drunk by the Mutlmvans, the Mannans, and the
Kanikkar, while tea is indispensable to the Uralis.
Changed ways of life and thought have led to the
unsettling of the mind of primitive man, and he
1ms bartered away his heritage and retreated to
more inhospitable lands to procure fanciful articles.
This has changed his former mode of life and
deprived him of all incentive for work.
Custom was the unifying factor among the pri-
mitive peoples. Contact with the people of the
plains has destroyed the complex web of customs
and institutions which, made up tribal life, and
in this process of disintegration, the weaker went
to the wall. The control of the hill-tribes by the
Forest Department tended to the diminution of the
influence and importance of the village chieftains
who are only mere shadows of their former selves,
and tills has endangered the maintenance of dis-
cipline. Frequent access to the people of the plains
has undermined their clan system and lessened the
regard and respect the people had for their head-
man. The Bachelors' Hall, which used to be a
bulwark against malpractices is now dwindling in
importance. The custom is still enforced among
the Mutlmvans , but it is undergoing a slow process
of silent decay among other tribes. The habit
of toddy and arrack drinking among the Kanikkar,
the Muthuvaiis, and the Mannans, of opium eating
154 THE ABOBIGIBTES OF TBAVANCOBB [VOL. III.
among the Vishavans, and of ganja smoking among
the Paliyans is becoming a serious problem. The
improvement of communications has brought them
into contact with the dregs of low country men with
the result that their morals are badly affected.
Lethal diseases like leprosy, syphilis, and others
are now found among them. They have lost in
bodily vigour and are fast dwindling in number.
They have now a low fecundity and fertility. Lot
us proceed to examine the cause of this further.
Population Problem in Travancore
It has been said that the population of Kerala
grows in defiance of the laws of nature, and that
u married woman in Travancore will have on an
average 7 children born to her during the child
bearing period of 1545 years.* A study of the
figures among the primitive tribes unfolds a dif-
ferent tale.
*N- Kunjan Filial The Travancore Census Report, 1931-Pari I,
p. 38.
VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE 155
fa
.8
CQ -rji
,1 5,
"3 72
g4d
g
156 THE ABOBIGINES Ol? TKAVANCORE [VOL. III.
It will be seen that the average survival rate of
children is 1-6 among the Kanikkar of Pechipara,
1 -5 among the Malavetan, 1 4 among the Ullatans,
and 1 -7 among the Malayarayans of Manimala.
Owing to improved climatic conditions, the size of
the family increases to 3-0 among the Kanikkar
of Kulatlmpuzha, 2-8 among the Malayarayan of
Thodupuzlm, 3-8 among the Mannans of Periyar,
3 -8 among the Malapantarams. In fact, the average"
survival-rate goes just over two among the other
tribes. Compared with the other castes of the
State, the fertility of the primitive tribes is low.
The human species has excessive fecundity, but
it is always to the female we look for an increase
or* decrease in species, for the male has prolific
fertilizing power. The reproductive power of the
female is governed by several factors. We may
first consider the fecund cycle. Evidence from
studies of primitive peoples indicates that primitive
man has but one reproductive period during the
year. This is said to be due to the precarious
nature of his food-supply. In Travaiicore, the
Malapantarams are a small tribe in the hunting
stage of civilization. They live on such wild, edible
roots and fruits as come in their way. They are
reduced to semi-starvation at times. At Achencoil,
they are found to have an average survival rate
of 3-8 which does not betoken that they have only
one reproductive period in the year. Conditions
no doubt change when man takes to agriculture and
domesticating animals. His present perennial sex
VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE 157
life is a concomitant of his emancipation on vege-
tation, wild fruit, and game. The Muthuvans, the
Urali, the Maunan, the Paliyan, the Pulaya, and
others have a higher average survival rate, while
the Kanikkar of Pechipara, the Malavetan, and
the Malayarayaii of Manimala have a lower survival
rate owing to adverse influence of environment.
The length of fecund life is another factor to
be reckoned in this connection. The fecund life
for females is from 15 to 45, and for males from
puberty to old age. The age at which menstruation
occurs appears to be influenced by climate, race,
and culture.. According to Eiigelman, the average
age of menstruation is 12-9 years in the tropics.
My enquiry shows that it is about 14 years among
the primitive tribes of Travancore. Menstruation
begins later and ends earlier among the tribes.
It is said that a surplusage of adult females
over males is a necessary condition of stabilization
and continued vigour of the human races.* The
table given below represents the present state of
affairs among the primitive tribes:
* Pitt Rivers- Tho Clash of Culture and contact of Races p. 268.
158
THE ABOBIGINES OP TBAVANCOBE [VOL. IIL
&
o
"3
a
a
cS
s
<D
fa
S
i
fl
CD
^D
M
O
I
Jz
ON
OS Ol t- | O O -f CO t^ i i CO CO ^ O O -
eo ^ o 10
* CM "*
01
i CO CO^
co~
GO
GOOD
^ *^
10*
as t CM ou os -^ eo co -M o d c-
COkj
OO^
CO
-O1O
"^^^
O
as
-*oiT-<o-i<cao* :-*-hox>'-'o :^t<
CO -* O CO 01 CO !> O r-l OO < -^ 2 ^
c> co cr> "^00,01 co i- ^ co 01 co^
?r-Tof o
CO
o
M
O
1
O
I
VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE 159
The Muthuvan, the Urali, the Vishavan, the
Malapulaya, the Tlmntapulaya, and the Ullatan
have a higher sex-ratio according to the Census of
1931, while the Kaiiikkar, the Malayarayan, the
Malavetan, the Maiinan, the Paliyan, the Malapan-
taram, and the Pulaya have a lower sex-ratio.
A surplusage of adult females alone ensures
the general monandry of the reproductive females,
and is an indication for the preservation of the race.
The absence of a high sex-ratio among the latter is
a sign of degeneration.
It is however pointed out that the primitive
tribes have a higher sex-ratio than the Marumak-
kathayis, and the latter a higher ratio than the
Makkathayis.* Among the primitive tribes, the
Kuravan is the only tribe having a population of
considerable numbers, and they have an excess of
females over males. The numbers of the other
tribes are too few to justify a general inference
being drawn on the sex-ratio. However, the ten-
dency of the tribes, as is seen from the average
ratio, is for the females to outnumber the males.
The sex-ratio of the important tribes is given
below :
1.. UUatans .. 1284
2. Kuravans . . 1074
3. Thantapulayas . . 1060
4. Muthuvan .. 1005
5. Vetans . . 983
6. Malayarayan .. 974
7. Mannan .. 919
8. Kanikkaran ..889
* Kunjan Pillai, N. The TraYancore Censu a Report, 1931. Vol. I
Part 1- p 132.
160 THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. III.
Havelock Ellis opines that the sexual impulse
in savages is weaker in the intensity and frequency
of its manifestations. "It may be that the small-
ness of the reproductive organs is due to the lack
of sexual organs of sexual excitement, and this in
turn may be the cause of so mueh sterility. Carr-
Saunders thinks that it is not unreasonable to
assume a connection between lesser development of
the reproductive organs and a lower degree of
fecundity.' 5 The Kanikkar of Pechipara, the Ulla-
tans, inside the reserve forests, the Malayarayaiis,
and the Malavetans exhibit low fecundity. Some
writers think that females arc responsible for this,
while others attribute it to the males. Popenoe
accounts for sterility being due to spermatoxins,
lack of healthy, well-ordered and unsatisfactory
marital habits.*
Lastly, Dr. Rivers speaks of the enormous
influence of mind on body arising out of despair
among lowly people, and says that it is the basic
cause of depopulation. By destruction of interest
in life, the hill-tribes are cut off from their old
moorings and they become mal-adapted, a circum-
stance which leads to eventual extinction. Changed
conditions of life can be measured in human de-
crease among the Kanikkar. Where there have
been fewer changes (the Muthuvans and the Uralis),
there the race survives. It is generally observed
that sexual desire and vigour tend remarkably to
be inhibited by anxiety, depression or the influence
of any strong emotional distraction. Ellis says
* Duncan, II. GK Race and Population Problems p. 265.
VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTURE 161
that desire and pleasure are very important aids
to pre-disposing causes of fertility. Any distur-
bance in this direction is likely to affect women more
profoundly, for a disturbance in the sexual sphere
of women is more potent hi its influence on the
whole organism than in man. Primitive man loses
heart, when once his customs are tampered with
and when he. is likely to be absorbed, this despair
serves to aid the physical causes of depopulation.
The fecundity and fertility of the tribes are being
reduced by the operation of the various causes
mentioned above. According to Robert R. Kuezyn-
ski, "if a woman has two children, the population
will sooner or later decrease.''* Judged by this
criterion, all the primitive tribes of Travancore,
barring the Muthuvaiis, the Mannans, the Paliyans,
and the Malapantarams are declining.
Remedies of Depopulation
It is said that the provision of new interests
is the antedote against racial despair, but the
future must be built on the past. Old institutions
and ancient traditions must be maintained as far
as possible. Most of the primitive tribes still
continue to be nomadic agriculturists driven to
more uncongenial lands, which yield hardly enough
to run their home for the whole year. Their
economic level is still very low. A large number
of them have not the means to secure the needed
clothing. They are perpetually in debt to low
country men which they are seldom able to dis-
charge. "They are the prey of many kinds of
Kobert R. Kuezynski-The Balance of Births and Deaths p. 1.
162 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOBE [VOL. III.
sharks who take advantage of their ignorance."
The Government of Travancore have framed a set
of rules for the treatment and management of the
hill tribes. If their welfare is to be safe-guarded,
the rules now in force require revision. We must
build on the tribal past through the agency of the
tribes themselves. The attempt to aid and foster
them should be the concern of the Government,
and should not be delegated to other agencies. The
rules have therefore to be modified on the lines
evolved by Mac Gregor elsewhere.*
1. The areas in reserves should be divided in
small blocks and assigned to individuals separately,
conferring on them the ownership thereof.
2. Each hill-man to whom land is given should
pay a fixed rental to Government.
3. Village councils should be constituted for
each settlement.
As nomadic agriculture is still the mainstay
of the tribes, improvidence and laziness intensify
their indebtedness. "Poverty and hunger give a
definite felt want. A felt want a keen feeling
of need is the best basis for securing and hold-
ing interest, "f It seems therefore desirable that
adequate credit facilities should be created, so that
the people may stand on their own legs. Credit
* The attention of the reader is invited to Page 239. 011 '"the
Primitive Tribes of Travancore " by L. A. Krishna Iyer and
N. Kuujan Pillay Vol. I, India, Part III, Ethnographical
B Ethnographic Notes by various Authors by Dr. J. H Hutton,
t D. Spenoer Hatch Up From Poverty p. 99.
VOL. III.] OCCUPATION AND CLASH OF CULTTJKE 163
societies, should be organized for the purppse of
improving the material condition of the tribes.
Well regulated markets create in the minds of sellers
and purchasers a feeling of confidence in each other.
It would be a great boon to the tribes if proper
arrangements could be made for marketing their
produce, so ttyat they might obtain proper value for
their articles.
Much damage has been caused to primitive
peoples by reformers who are ignorant of their life
and customs. A knowledge of Anthropology will be
a useful handmaid to social reformers and adminis-
trators. The province of Assam is said to be the
only instance of a provincial administration carried
on in the best interests of the primitive population,
and this has been possible by the anthropological
knowledge and foresight possessed by its talented
administrators Dr. Hutton and Mr. Mills. Assam
serves as a model to other provincial administra-
tions and Indian States for treatment of backward
races. It behoves them to consider the feasibility
of having a trained anthropologist in charge of
primitive areas. The economic cycle of the pri-
mitive area could be observed and economic develop-
ment fostered and guided in keeping with the cycle.
The tribes could be protected from unscrupulous
money lenders and landlords by special legislation.
The material and moral well-being can thus be
fostered in harmony with their tribal past. ' ' Every
people, every tribe, however little advanced in its
stage of development, represents a psychic type or
164 THE ABORIGINES OF TBAVANCOEE [VOL. III.
pattern. The interests of humanity require that
every type should be assisted and educated to its
adquate expression and development. No race lives
to itself and no race dies to itself. We must lead
the backward ones to a full utilization of the oppor-
tunities of their environment and a development of
their distinctive natural characteristics.' 7 *
* Radhakrishnan, S-, The Hindu View of Life, pp. 95 96.
INDEX
PAGE
PAGJS
A
Bhagavata Purana
30
Biasutti
32
Adiehan Arayan
22
Birhor
68
Adichanallur
48
Blache, Vidal DC
7
Adipandi Pandyan
23
Blondness
12
Adultery
105
Blood -gjou ping
44
Affinities, Racial
31
Blow -tube
74
Agastya
29
Bodinaickanur
25
Agriculture, Taboo
115
Borlase
52
Alcoholism
69
Bourdillon
48
Altitude
6
Bow
73
Ambalapuzha
85
Briffault
., 94, 98,
Ananthakrishna Iyer,
148
L. K- ;..
38
Bruoo Footo
58
Ancestor. worship
Burial
Malayarayan
140
MalapantSraro
133
Kanikkar
142
Muthuvan
130
Muthuvati
142
Urali
131
Vishavan
142
Paliyan
132
Andamanese
42
Malayarayau
132
Animism
138
Thantapulayari
135
Anjanad
50
Ullatan
133
Anthropometry
7
Kanikkar
134
Arenga Wightii
68
Malavetan
135
Arutalichavu
146
Nayadi
136
Aryan
8
Burma
57
Assam
59
Bushmen
45
Attingal
22
Australian
31,44
Avebury
71
C
Ayyappancoil
26
Azhamala
143
Calvorton
93
Azhutha
148
Cardamom Hills
25
Carr Saunders
... 21,160
B
Cary^ta urens
70
Caucasian
15
Bachelor-hall
72
Chakkiparamala
143
Bachofen
93 ; 119
Chanda, R. P.
30
Ball, Vincent
60
Chautiyat Amma
26
Bamboo
71,74
Chavadi
72
Bayana
62
Chembikunnu
71
Beddoe
8
Ohenchus
71
Bendon
137
Cheriyar
124
166
THE ABOBIGINBS OF TBAVANCOBB [VOL. 111.
PA<JB
PAOE
Child-birth
112
Evans, Mrs,
69
Malapant&ram
113
Exogamy
76
Paraya
114
Pnlaya
114
F
Urali
113
Chokkanad
26
Farnell
136
Ohokkanadar
26
Fertility
156
Cipriani
9
Fergusson
53
Classificatory System...
91
Finot
13
Climate
5
Flint and Steel-Fire-
Coffee
69
making
69
Coition, Pre-puberty ...
102
Kanikkar
70"
Comb
104
Muthuvan
...
Cooper
58
Mannan
... ...
Coulanges, M. Fustel
Malayarayan
...
Do ...
80
Vishavan
... ...
Cousin Marriage
97
Flower
8
Crawley
93, 107
Fr-od -quest
67
Cremation
135
Foulkes
74
Crooke, Sir William ...
68, 94
Fowler, Sir William
11
Cultivation, terraced ...
151
France
63
Cumbummettu
26
Frazer
... 76, 90,
Curcuma Augustifolia...
68
111, 112,
. 116
D
Freud
107
Furniture
72
Darwin
94
Dasyus
19
G
Davenport
15
Digging stick
73
Gait, Sir Edward
94
Distribution of Primi-
Garos
... 71, 100
tive Tribes ...
2
Gates, Ruggles
15, 45
Dolichocephaly
17
Gmd
57, 96
Dolmen
51
Gondid
37
Dormitory
71
Gopinatha Bao
52
Dorsey, G. A.
99
Gopura Mannan
26
Dravidian
8,31
Grant
142
Dubriei
52
Grewia tiliaef olia
69
Duncan, H. G-
15,17
Guha
...9, 10, 13,
47,63
B
H
Eickstedt
8,68
Elandari
125
Habitations
70
Elliot Smith
6
Haddon
8
Enthoven
10
Hair
13
Enviornment Influence
Hand-drill
68
of ...
5
Harappa
46
Eaquioio
96 Hatch, Spencer
162
VOL. III.]
INDEX
167
PAGE
PAGE
Havelock Ellis
160
Kothayar
24
Highland
1
Kottur
103
Hill Male
44
Kudakad
81
Hinduism
10
Kuezynaki, Hubert
161
Hodsun, T. C.
100
Kularan
124
Holland
8
Kunjan Pillai, N.
154
Humbolt
m
Kuruba
34
Hunting Deities
145
Ku rum bar
29, 60
Button, J. H.
...9, 13, 41,
Kuruppan
127
62, 73, 163
L
I
Lapicqe
47
Indonesia
... 59, 61
Latte
46
Inheritance
118
Levirate
101
Property
120
Leo Jfrobenms
119
Widow
121
Lowie
119
Irula
68
Lowlands
1
Isoiopes Articulata
66
Lusheis
72
Lyall
147
K
H
Kabul Nagas
59
Kadir
... 14, 32,
Macdonell
... 5J,I29
41, 44, 67
Macf a r lane
9
Kadukutti
53
Me LCD Ha u
... 80, 89,
Kaikkaran
127
122
Kalakad
... 21,23
Madura
26
Kali
147
Maine, Sir Henry
... 11,80
Kailar
66
Major Munn
60
Kallidakurichi
22
Malankuravan
2, 87
Kallidanikunnu
148
Malapantaram
...2, 41, 65,
Kanikkar
...2, 44, 45,
67, 76
69, 77,
103, 120
103
Malapulaya
... 2, 105
Kan'kkaran
125
Malaria
7
Kanui Ayyappan
148
Malav@tan
...2,43,65,
Karimpandi
23
87
Kattukallar
28
Malay arayan
...2,48, 81,
Karl Buoher
150
104
Keane, A.H.
71
Ma lid
37
Keith, Sir Arthur
... 15, 62
MalinowBki
103
Keyserling, Count
93
Mankutti
78
Kheriyas
68
Mannan
... 2,.48, 84,
Kill para mbu
... 81, 184
121
K'aiuala Reserve
71
Mannankandam
84
Komar&than
127
Maori
45
168
THE ABOBIGINES OF TEAVANCOEE [VOL. HE.
PAGE i
PAGB
Marett, R. K.
138 Narada
69
Mariamma
147 Nasal Index
19
Marriage
48
Nattukallar
28
Capture
95 Nayat Aruvala
146
Service
96 Nayadi
...3,70,121
Purchase ...
96 Nediltu
27
Exchange
97 Negrito
42
Marriage Ceremonies
102
Neriamaugaiam
26
Marutuamala
29
Newbingen
63
Matcer
54, 69,
Nishadas
30
101,141
Mathutti Pillai
22
O
Matriarchy
119
Mattupatti
55
Occupation
149
Meenakshi
26
Olakarivu
29
Megalithic Monuments-..
51
Oraon
57
Mel-Vaka
124
Menhir
58
P
Menstruation
Malapantarani
111
Padraanabha Menon,
fjrali
112
K.P
65
Midland
1
Palaniandavar
147
Mid-Pandy Pandian ...
23
Paliyan
2
Mills, J. P.
163
Palni Hills
74
Missionaries
152
Palithrakka
124
Mitra, Panchanan
33
Pambanar
54
Mohenja Daro
42
Pambu Pulaya
68
Mongolian
8
Pandarachavu
146
Monogamy
98
Panikkan
125
Montelius
6J
Paniyan
44
Montesque
69
Para y a
3
Morgan, Jaques De
119
Pellet-bow
74
Mothiramala
78
Periyar
156
Mundas
57
Porry, W. J.
.. 48,58
Muppali
75
Perumparayan
127
Muppan
123
Peru nthal para
54
Murthi
146
Petric Fliiiders
61
Mutilations
66
Pile-dwelling
71
Muttukani
123
Pituatary gland
15
Muthakka
124
Plathi
126
Muthuvan
2,48,81,
Pliny
111
104
Polygamy
99
Polyandry
100
N
Pomerai, Ralphe De
.. 92,112,
114
Naga
72
Ponamban
125
Nagamiah, V.
M, 64
Poonjat
26
Nara
73
Poopara
85
in.]
INDEX
169
Popenoe
FAUJfi
160
Saunders
L AQK
57
Population
3
Savaruparamala
143
Do. Problems
154
Sayce ^
12
Porkukndi
124
Sample
13, 15,
Porojas
72
151
Pothidukku
124
Sergi
32
Pre-Dravidian
32
Sewell
42
Preuss
38
Sex -ratio .s.
159
Proto-Australoid
42
Sithangan Arayan
22
Puberty
107
Skin, Colour of
12
Malapautaram
109
Sin i lax Zcylanica
135
Vishavan
109
Social organization
Paliyan
109
Ma la pan ta rani
123
Maunan
109
Kanikkar
123
Uralis
109
Muthuvan
124
Thantapulaya
110
Mannan
125
Chingannivetan
110
Malayarayan ...
125
Paraya
111
Uralis
125
Pulaya
...3,47,88,
Paliyan
126
99
Pulaya
126
Pulichavu
145
Paraya
127
Puthiyaruala
,... 143
Sor orate
101
Spencer
94, 143
Q
Srinivasa lyengar, M....
129
Stani
126
Quatrofage
18
Starohe
121
Stature
14
R
Subramauia
147
Subrawmia Iyer, N. ...
26
Raja Mannan
27
Sundarapandi
124
Rakshasan
125
Sun-worship
140
Rangachari, V.
51
Religion
138
T
Rhodesian skull
42
Rig-Veda
... 19,52
Taboo
107
ttisley, Sir Herbert
...7,31,138
Talayari
124
Rivers
... 58, 165
Tattooing
66
Roy
58
Taylor, Medows
53
Rugger!
61
Taylor Griffith
15,41
Russel
80
Thala Pandi Pandyan-
23
Thalaparamala
143
S
Thandakaran
125
Thatinipatta
125
Sabarimala
147
Thantapulaya
3. 13, 65
Samba var
17
Thodupuzha
2
Sankurandamalai
28
Thondimala
55
Sasta
147
Thotwell
137
170
THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [VOL. HI.
PAQK
PAGI
Thurston
8, 31
Vaka
124
Todas
... 58, 62
Valathraka
124
Topinard
... 8, 19, 31
Valia Elandari
125
Traditions of Origin
Valiveedu
51
Kauikkar
21
Varayilkizhu Mannan
26
Muthuvan
25
Vedda
...31,32,43
Mnnnan
25
Veeua Mariya
126
trail
27
Vettuvau
69
Paliyan
28
Village Deities
143
Vishavan
28
Virappan Arayan
22
Tramp Spirits
146
Visscher, J. 0.
64'
Tree -house
72
Vishavan
3
Tylor
... 118,140
U
W
Uduwbumchola
26
Waitz
12
Udumparamala
143
Wai house
52
Ullatau
... 3,41,64,
Watubola
58
88
Ward and Conner
...52,59,151
Urali
... ; 3, 26, 40,
Weapons
73
48, 100
Weddid
37
W ester marck
... 83,92,98,
Y
99,120,138
Widow marriage
102
Vadattupara
55
Woodroff
13
V'adakkarau
127
ABBREVIATIONS OF THE TRIBES
K., for Kanikkar
M. K., for Malankuravan
M. Pant., for Malapantaram
M- P., for Malapulaya
M. V., for Malavetan
M. A., for Mala Arayan
M., for Mannan
Mut., for Muthuvan
P., for Paliyan
Pa., for Parayan
Pu. f for Pulayan
U., for Ullatan
Ur., for Urali
V., for Vishavan
NAMES OF EXOGAMOUS CLANS
Adakad Nagamala (M.)
Ada kuttom (Pu.)
Ainikadanki'di (M.)
Alapankar (V.)
Ambattan Nagamala (M.)
Aravakudi (M.)
Chora kat kuttom (Pu.)
Ghorunatan illom (Pa.)
Ohuraliar illom (M. V.)
B
Edadankudi (M.)
Edattupattu Urngarau(M.)
Ellikuttom (Mut)
Euna illom (M. A-)
Ennayarikuttom
Ermnbiyat illom (K.)
Kalknndal kudi (M.)
Kanakuttom (Mut.)
Kanakuttom (Ur.;
Kanayathu kuttom (Mut.) ,
Kandamala Panikudi (M.).
Kandathu Burnakudi (M.) ,
Kanjiram illom (Pa )
Kara illom (M. K.)
Kaiauoheri illom (IT.)
Kavattu illom (U.)
Kayyillom (K.)
Kodiyan Nagamala (M.) ,
Kodiyari kuttom (Ur.)
Konchillom (Pa.)
Korangani illom (M. A.) .
Kovani illom (Pa.)
Kraplikar (V.)
Kumblankudi (M.)
PAGE
PAGJ*
Kunnikar (V.)
82
.. 85
Ku rum illom (K-)
78
.. 88
Kurunthadi ilhfcn (M. K.) ...
87
.. 85
.. 82
M
.. 85
.. 84
Madapalli ill<>m(U.)
87
Mala illom (M. A.)
86
Malakad Pauikudi (M.) ...
84
Mam pal li kuttom (Pu.)
88
.. 88
Mangottillom (K.)
78
.. 80
Maniyarankiidi (M.)
85
.. 87
Mannati illom (K..)
79
Mariiigathukar (V.)
82
Melakuttorq (Mtit.)
81
Mcnati illom (M. K.)
87
.. 85
Monillom (K.)
77
- 85
Modalikad illom (Al. A.) ...
86
.. 81
Modauatan illom (M. V.) ...
87
.. 85
Mulaikonath illom (K )
79
.. 83
Mundillom (M. A.)
85
.. 79
Muppankad Nagamala (M.)...
84
Muthuvar Aravakudi (M.) ...
84,
85
Muttillom (K.)
77,
.. 85
79
.. 83
Mylai illorn (Pa.)
89
.. 81
.. 81
N
.. 84
.. 84
Nattumaimaukudi (M.)
85
.. 87,
Nedungad illom (Pa.)
89
89
Nedumattathu kuttom (Pu.)..
88
.. 87
Nollipalli illom (M. A.)
86
.. 88
Norkottu kuttom (Pu.)
88
.. 88
.. 77
.. 85
... 83
Oria kuttom (Ur.)
83
.. 89
Onthillom (M. K-)
87
.. 86
.. 89
F
.. 82
Padathi kuttom (Pu.)
88
.. 85
Palamala illom (K )
79
174
THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCOBE [Vol>. IH.
PAGE
PAGJS
PalHlom (K.)
... 77
Thechira illom (M. K.)
87
Pa'iyana kiittom (Pu.)
... 88
Th'.-kkada Ailavu (M.)
84
Pallikal ill"m (M. K.)
... 87
Thonikfcar (V-)
82
Panikankudi (M.)
... 85
Thoprankudi (M.)
85
Panikudi (M.)
... 84
Thurobra illom (K.)
79
Panniviryan (M.)
... 85
Thuriya kuttoin (Mut.)
83
Paiithirayira illom(M.A )
... 86
Thushani kuttoni (Mut.)
81
Paramala ilium (K.)
... 78,
79
Patika ill<>m (K.)
... 79
U
Paruthi Ul<>m (Pu.)
... 88
Purakala illom (U.)
... 88
Unan^athad Aravakudi (M.)..
85
Porimanilloia (K.)
... 78
Uraliarikudi (M.) ...
85
Porinchillom (.)
... 77
Poriyila kuitom (Ur)
... 83
Pey illom (Pa.)
... 89
Y
Piwhatikkar (V.)
... 82
Pokkankar (V.)
... 82
Vadavattu kuttom (Pu.) ...
88
Pouuoyaukar (V.)
... 82
Vala illom (M. A.)
85 ,
Poonjori illom (Pa-)
... 89
86
Poth<>t tillom (K.)
... 79
^a^'ana illom (M. K.)
87
Puthani illom (M. A.)
... 81,
Vayanavar kuttoin (Ur.) ...
83
85
Vayyotan illoju (Pa.)
89
Puthaiii knttoni (Mut.)
... 81
Votanat illom (K.) ... .
78,
79
R
Vclillom(K.)
78
Vollayillom (K-)
79
Jlajakad Ailavu (M.)
... 85
Vr-Jlillom (PaO
89
Vonatati illom (M. V.)
87
Vcudiri illom (M. V.)
87
Thaohan illom (Pa.)
... 89
Vcuui kuttom (M. K.)
87
Thaxhakara illom (Pa )
... 89
Vettikuttom (Ur.) ...
83
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
N<>.
Name of Author.
1.
Ananthakrishr.a Iyer,
L. K.
2.
Benden,E.
3.
Briffault, Robert
4.
Calyerton
5.
Carr Saunders
6.
Chanda, R. P.
7.
Count Koyserling
8.
Crawl ey, A. E.
9.
Davenport
10.
Dorse y, G. A.
11.
Duncan, H. G.
12.
Enthoveii, R, !<].
13.
Fanioll
14.'
Fragcr, J. G.
15.
Frazer Lectu i es
1922-1932
16.
Furgusson
17.
Gait, E. A.
18.
Griffith Taylor
19.
tladdon, A. C.
20.
lIodBon, T. C.
21.
Uutton, J. H.
22.
James, E. O.
2S.
Keane, A H .
24.
Kue^ynaki, R. R .
25.
Kunjan PilJai% N.
26.
Mackenzie, D. A.
27.
Marett, R. R.
28.
Mateer
29. NagaraiahjV.
Name of Book.
The Mysore Tribes and Castca.
Daath Customs.
The Mothers.
Sox in Civilization.
The Population Problem.
The Inlo-Aryan Races.
The Book of Marriage .
Tho Mystic Rose.
Heredity in Relation to Eugenics.
Why We Behave lilre Human Beings.
Race and Population Problems.
The Ethnographic Survey of India.
Jubilee Number of Bombay Anthro-
pological Society, 1938.
Tho Evolution of Religion.
The Golden Bough.
The Folklore and Old Testameist.
Rough Stone Monuments,
The Census of India, 1911 .
Race and Environment.
The Races of Man.
Census Etrmography 1901-1931.
Tho Census of India, 1931, Parts I
and III.
An Introduction to Anthropology.
Man Past and Present.
The Balance of Births and Deaths-
The Travanooro Census Report,
Indian Myths and Legends.
Anthropology .
Native Life in Travanoore.
The Land of Charity.
The State Manual.
176
THE ABORIGINES OF TRAVANCORE [VoL. III.
No. Name of Author.
30. Newbingen
31. Padraanabha Mennn,
K- P
32. Perry, W. J.
33. Pitt-Rivers
34. Ralph Do Pomerai
35. Rangachari, V.
36. Risloy
37. Rugger i
38. Ruggles Gates
39. Russel, R. V.
40. Son) pie, E.G.
41. Srinivasa lyeagar, M.
42. Staroko
43. Subramania Iyer, N.
44. Thotwell
45. Thurstou
46. do.
47. Tylor
48. Vidal de Blachc
49. Visscher
50. Ward and Connor
51. Wester marc k
Name of Book.
Modern Geography.
The History of Kerala.
The Children of the Sun.
Megulithio Culture of Indonesia.
The Clash of Culture and Contact of
Races .
Marriage, Past, Present, and Future.
The Prehistoric India.
The People ot India.
The First Outlines of a Systematic
Anthropology of Asia.
Heredity in Man.
The Tribes and Castes of Central Pro-
vinces.
The Influence of Geographical Envi-
ronment.
Tamil Studies.
The Human Family.
Tho Travanoore Census Report, 1901.
The Religious Revolution of the Day.
Madras Museum Bulletin, 2. No. 3,
The Dravidian Problem-
Ethnographic Noten in Southern
India.
Primitive Culture.
Tho Principles of Human Geography.
Letters from Mdabar.
Memoirs of Jhe Survey of Travancore
and Cochin.
The Origin and Development of Moral
Idea*.
The Future of Marriage in Western
Civilization .
REVIEWS ON VOLUME I.
. . i
OPINIONS OP ANTHBOPOLOGISTS.
1. " A mine of well -arranged information with
regard to many tribes and castes of primitive
habits and correspondingly interesting to the
anthropologist."
R. E. Marett.
2. " I am happy to say that 1 like even more
the contents as they are so well written and form
a clear survey of facts. This is of great impor-
tance now, when tribes are vanishing with their
customs. You have done a really useful work
for science as well as for your country for
it is at the present state of affairs of great im-
portance that we have a careful record of facts
as you have done, the scientific world being
already swamped with theories. I appreciate
your sober and quiet study very much."
Baron von Eickstedt.
3. "A valuable contribution to the great work
set on foot by my old friend Herbert Risley."
R. E. Enthoven.
4. "I have found the matter highly interest-
ing and of a strictly methodical and objective
character, singling out and describing in full
detail the salient features in the culture of these
primitive tribes."
P. W. Thomas.
5. " The first volume contains a wealth of
carefully selected ethnographical material
regarding seven out of the sixteen primitive
tribes of Tra van core and is likely to be as indis-
pensable to the anthropologist as it is of fascina-
ting interest to the layman."
C. P. Skrine.
6, "I congratulate you on the fullness of
your work. Your remarks on remedial measures
are particularly valuable as reminding readers
that anthropology is above all practical."
J. P. Mills.
OPINIONS OF THE PKESS.
1. "Wisely the Travancore Government de-
cided that first attention should be given to the
hill-tribes, whose social and religious institu-
tions are fast vanishing. Only seven of these
tribes are dealt with in this volume, which re-
peats and amplifies the admirable synopsis of the
Census Report for 1931, based on the author's
notes."
Nature, London.
2. "The work has been very carefully done
and furnishes a very valuable record of the prac-
tices of these primitive people."
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,
London.
3. "An excellent work of ethnography, ex-
tremely rich in information and without useless
phrases. It is of very great interest to compara-
tive ethnology."
Bulletin De L' Association Francaise
Des Amis De L' Orient (Parish
4* " A valuable addition to tbe anthropologi-
cal literature of South India by one who is an
accepted authority on the ethnography* of Tra-
vancore.
The Hindustan Times, New Delhi.
5. "The State of Travancore is a rich store-
house of ethnological material, and students of
anthropology have been long looking forward to
a comprehensive account of the tribes and castes
of the State. Now that, under the direction of
the State authorities. Mr. L. A. Krishna Iyer
has supplied the first instalment of such an ac-
count, students will be grateful to the State
authorities.
Man in India, Ranchi.
6. " The Travancore Government deserves
congratulations on the publication of the first
volume, written by Mr. L. A. Krishna Iyer, of
The Travancore Tribes and Castes in which
seven out of the sixteen primitive tribes in that
State, are described, at length, in terms of strict
scientific accuracy. When completed, this series
of volumes will be a valuable contribution to the
study of Anthropology and Ethnography. The
illustrations are well executed, and the book
redounds to the credit of the author, and also of
the State that he setves. ' '
The Hindustan Review, Patna,
[iii]
7. " Contact with other people is rapidly
changing the racial organization and life of these
tribes. Their origin, their territory, and the in-
fluence of natural features on their habits, cus-
toms, and traditions are dealt with by Mr. Krishna
Iyer, who has pursued, though in a different
area, the anthropological and ethnographic in-
vestigations carried out in Cochin and Mysore
by his distinguished father, the late Dewan
Bahadur Dr. L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer."
The Madras Mail.
8. " To the proper study of man as a social
being, the observations of the professional an-
thropologist in the day-to-day life of man are
necessary. That the author, himself the son of
another distinguished author on books on the
Mysore and Cochin Tribes and Castes, should
have undertaken the task, is a sufficient guaran-
tee of the i thoroughness in treatment of the
matter dealt with in the work before us."
Journal of the Mythic Society, Bangalore.
9. " This neatly gat up volume is a study of
the tribes of the Highlands of Travancore. The
picture of the material and social anthropology
of these tribes, who have reached the vanishing
point, and on whom the influence of modern
civilization is steadily making its mark, is in-
valuable from a scientific and historical point of
view."
The Bharata Patrika, Trivandrum.
[iv]
10. " The Travancore Government, consist-
ently with their well established policy of the
promotion of culture in any form, have placed
the scientific world under great obligation by
entrusting the work to such an able and experi-
enced worker like Mr, Krishna Iyer whose
piecemeal publications on the different aspects
of the subject have been highly complimented
by several organizations and journals dealing
with the subject." ..
The Daily News, Trivandrum.
11. ** The usefulness of the work consists in
the fact that it is an authenticated record of the
modes of life of a primitive population that has
almost reached vanishing point. To keep a re-
cord of the various customs and peculiarities of
life which give each tribe an individuality of its
own, to indicate the origin and traditions of each,
to give an account of their marriage customs,
religious beliefs, and in fact to draw up a picture
of their life in general is indeed a service done
to history."
The Malayala Raj yam, Quilon.
12. *' Brimful of facts which should satisfy
the most fastidious ethnographist but at the
same time absorbingly interesting even to the
lay reader, the Travancore Tribes and Castes is
a notable contribution to the ethnographical
literature and is a valuable addition to the col-
lection of reference books concerning Travan*
core."
The Bharata Kesari, Trivandrum.
[v]
REVIEWS ON VOLUME II.
OPINIONS OF ANTHROPOLOGISTS.
1. " A first reading assures me that in its
matter and manner alike it is a masterly piece of
work. I hope you will long continue to bring
credit to Indian learning and research."
R. R. Marett.
2. " It is a most useful publication."
J. P. Mills.
3. '* It strikes me as an interesting and use-
ful record of tribes whose ancient customs must
now be rapidly disappearing."
F. H. Gravely.
4. "I may say now that I am in fall agr.ee-
men t with Dr. Button's Foreword."
M. Yeatts.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
1. " Mr. Krishna Iyer is much to be congratu-
lated on his lucid description of the history, cus-
toms, and ceremonies of Travancore. The care-
ful classification of subjects makes the book of
practical reference. In every way hd tries to
tell us the reasons and underlying ideas for the
behaviour of these jungle people, all of which
makes for greater interest."
Nature, London.
2. * ' Mr. Iyer gives his readers a good insight
into the culture and manner of life of his
tribes."
Journal of the Madras University.
3. "It follows the simple and adequate plan
as the first volume of presenting a definite pic-
ture of the material and social anthropology of
each of the tribes described and thus providing
a trustworthy record of conditions that are fast
disappearing under the impact of modern civili-
zation. The Travancore Government, which
deservedly takes a place in the front rank of
Indian State Governments, has earned the
gratitude of all students of Indian anthropology
by organising this survey and publishing its
results with commendable speed."
The Leader, Allahabad.
4. "What enhances the value of the accounts
is the systematised manner in which the studies
of the eight tribes seem to have been pursued by
the author. This study may be said to throw no
small light on the question of the matriarchate
in South India. The domain of the mother is
seen to be su'preme in almost every tribe dealt
with in the volume . ' '
The Hindu, Madras.
5. As one reads of one group 'after another,
one is struck with the Indian capacity to con-
serve what is even of the least value, even in the
face of the most ttaexpected natural or manmade
difficulties. In the marriage customs of these
[vii]
peoples, in their quaint songs, and in the rituals
which are connected to everyone of their social
functions, one comes across the rudiments of
calculated collective effort, and of a healthy
consciousness of the value of economic justice.
Today when hybrid education has invested even
the greatest amongst us with despair about our
social future, a book like Mr. Krishna Iyer's is
very helpful, for it re-assures us once again that
we have an immemorial background of social
effort and integral group existence. "
The Hindustan Times, New Delhi.
6. " The two volumes analyse the distinc-
tive characteristics of the tribes, and their social
organization and customs and permitted interac-
tions, and copiously illustrate the analyses by
photographs of individuals and groups and their
homes and'avocations ; also by maps, charts and
statistics. The series does great credit to
the author, who takes his place among the small
but distinguished group of workers in a field of
knowledge which is not always appreciated as
it should".
The Indian Social Reformer.
7. " As the home of some of the most primi-
tive tribes of South India, some of whom have
not emerged from the hunting stage of life, these
volumes embodying the results of an ethnolo-
gical survey of the whole State, are* of undoubted
interest; and both the Travancore Government
and the author, L. A. Krishna Iyer, are to be
congratulated on their publication".
The Madras Mail.
8. " Anyone who understands the difficulty
in collecting authentic ethnographic data in the
tropical jungles will give credit to the author
for the industry and enthusiasm that he has
brought to bear on this piece of work. The
illustrations are more carefully selected than
the first volume and the get-up is definitely
better".
Current Science, Bangalore.
9. "The second * volume keeps up the high
standard set by the talented author in the first,
and we look forward with ardent anticipations
the succeeding volumes of this valuable
work. Our thanks are due not only to the able
author of the work who has accomplished
his task so well, but also to His Highness the
enlightened and generous Maharaja of Tra van-
core and his wise and far-sighted Dewan who
have placed the scientific world in their debt by
instituting a regular Ethnographic Survey of the
State of which these volumes are the first fruits."
Man in India, Ranchi.
10. "The second volume gives an interesting
account of eight of the aboriginal tribes of Tra-
vancore. Each tribe is treated in a systematic
manner according to a definite plan, and a wealth
of interesting matter is provided for the reader.
The Government of Travancore are to be con-
gratulated on their enterprise and the complete
set of volumes should be of great value to every
officer who fcas anything to do with the adminis
tration of the State."
The Indian Forester, Dehra Dun.
11. "The book is an admirable attempt to con-
tinue the well-known series of Travancore Eth-
nology. Both the Government of Travancore
and the author deserve praise and thanks for an
undoubted piece of useful work."
The Journal of the Bihar and Orissa
Research Society.
12. "The author has made a comprehensive
survey of these tribes with the zeal of a searcher
after truth. The results of his exhaustive in-
vestigation have been so deftly marshalled that
the reader c$ii,easily move among the animating
waves of information that confront him. The
movement onward is easy, lucid, and interesting.
We have no doubt that this book will be a valu-
able addition to tho literature on aboriginal
tribes."
The Malayali, Trivandrum.
13. "It must be admitted that the patience
and industry which the author has brought to
bear on the work have been richly rewarded, in
that it throws a flood of light on the modes of
life, dress, and culture of the primitive tribes and
groups of Travancore".
The Malayala Rajyam, Quilon.
W.
CHARTS
showing Distribution of Stature, Cephalic
Index and Nasal Index.
f
I
i
i
1 ! I .' ! ' 1
u . *
i
JO US 140 145 A 150 K
Fig.1 1
* t
*155 B t60 lift C IT? 1*5
fan/Mar.
i
t
i i
*'*'!'! i i
: : - ; ,! ,
JO 135 140 145 A 100 f
Fit *'
! I .1
, * .1
i
C"':"":'*^"
iJiuratran
t i
:. ! !
':.!? ::i::s:;!:i:::i:i:::. i ,.i:, ,! T . . , i
A M B 4 4
140 145 150 155 160 tftft 170 175
Fig. 3. Ufa/ajM/itoa/n.
Of
DISTRIBUTION of STATURE
Scatt f Inch* 10 cms.
Left of A -Pygmy.
A-B -Short
B-C -Medium.
M
! -' : !
....:, ,.!.!!..,
Tan.
I
i
I
t
f !
Uainre.
!
.
; i * 1 1 rr? . r
I
I
; ij, , , , .
r < i t 1 I.J.UUJ..I.,. i.x-1 i ij^i t 1 i
50 135 140 146 150
Fig , 4 . tfa/ap
' i
i
' . r . . r : : : . r
* 8
u/ayan.
! .'
** i*
!
170 175
I
I
I
. ll. . . , i
1 Ml 1 1 1 1
, i ; , , , i , ;!i
30 135 140 145 A f50 M t6f
F/g .5 Mtnnan,
c
160 165
170 175
1
1
1
: .:..:!::::
I
.i.-l-a . .1 . 1 . . t . 1 . . |.
1 y* 1 ' *'
130 136 (40 H5 ISO 166 ffiQ ]66 170
ft-
t
i ; ; ; ;
i
: :....:..|, |
50 135 140 H5 tso /55
B CD
160 t0S 170 175
LfMo, Surrey C^ce, TuvM^m. 1940 A. 0/1 US M
DISTRIBUTION of STATURE
Scale I Inch** 10 cms.
I*f* of A -Pygmy.
A-B -Short
B-C -Medium
C-D Tall.
Man Suture
I
I . U. , l w .
:::. :.: !
I: :::!: '
i T ' . i '. ui i \ \ t . ? ?l * 'n i ? * T * T i ilt . iu . . i
13S 140 K5 ' 150 155 160 165 170 175
Fig 8.Muthuvan. .*
\ \
* !- j
; . ? : : r g r ;^: ; i n . . . i
135 140 145 " 150 155 MB 160 165 170 175
fig 5. P&liyan.
i ;
j? i . . : : ! |
i; ;;,};!;; i ;;h;i ;;;!;i ;;;;;. i,. iLf, ..
135 140 145 A 150 M 155 B 160 16S 17? 175
Fig 10. Pti/ayan
t - : i ! f !
...... i i
i
. t . :i? . i : tl: : i : : :s? i r . . , . .ii . iL > _. . *
A M B C O
135 140 145 150 155 160 '*& 170 >75
Fig . 11 Thantapulayav
L/tAo, Survt/ Office, Tnvandrum 1940 A
DISTRIBUTION of STATURE
Scale I Inch = 10 cms.
Left of A Pygmy,
A-B -Short.
B-C -Medium.
P C-D Tail.
M Mean Stature.
-
:::
i
i
::
t
i
13S ' 140 f4S 150 155 160 ,166 170 175
F^ . H
-
1
**
.
I
r
-1
-
. . .
: .[..
'
"
. H--
;. : !i::.!.:!
J| t 1 1 1 1 i I_L 1 I 1
<if. j -. . _
l"'"^V
I' ' 1' '
1 ' 'A" '6' " "
15S 160 1GS 170
Fig . 13. UrilL
175
E ! :
1
1
1
L -
1
|
|
F * 1*1
!
1 < .1 1 1 1 1 t I 1
JlnM^
Mh .
UlJ
A M B
*TT
<
4
135 140 145 " ISO 15 ' 160
Fig . 74. Vi&hwan.
I t
! i
it
138
140 146 ISO *55 tfiO
165
170 176
Fig . id.
Lithe, Survey Office, Trivzndrum. i93Q A. 0/111$
DISTRIBUTION of STATURE
5ca/e / Inch =10 cms
Left of A -Pygmy
A-B -Short.
B-C -Medium,
C-D -Tall.
* -Mean Stature.
I ' !
f ' ! :.
. , ., , !. r ::-.- rr: : -r
i
!
1 " " ' A' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' v ' ' ' ' '
4-r-
* _K jK
135
145 ISO 155 f60
fig. 16 Sambavar
170
I
1
1 * * ,
.
i
i
i
i
..,..!.
i
i
i
fit ' * *
. . . : :l: : i : t :
i
133 140
145 ISO T55
Fig 17.
B
160
Para/an
it *
170 t7
L/t/Jo, Sumy Oftco, Trivandrum. 1340 A. 0/1115 M .
DISTRIBUTION of CEPHALIC INDEX
Scale / Inch =10 ems.
Left of A -Dolichocephalic.
A-B -Msocephallc.
Right of B -Braehyeaptutlle.
65
70
A
75
85
f/g . f a
&o
70
A
75
f/g . 3 a. Afa/apantaram.
, 7r//nrfrum. 19M A. 0/111$ M . ,
DISTRIBUTION of CEPHALIC INDEX
Scale I Inch =10 cms.
Lrft of A -Dollohoeaphallc.
A-B -Hesoeephalie.
Right of B -Brachyeephallc.
Litho, Surrey 0ftct,
. 1940 A. 0/111$ M .
DISTRIBUTION of CEPHALIC INDEX
Scale I inth=W cms.
Left of JL -Dolichocephalic,
A-B MeBOcephaltc.
Right of B Brachycephalie,
70
85
Fig .7*. Ma/ayanayan.
65
70
76
Fig ,8s.
75
B
00
Fig . 9 a. Pa//yan.
L'rtho, Survey Office, Trivandrum 1910 A. D/1115 U f
DISTRIBUTION of CEPHALIC INDEX
Scale I Inch*e10 cms.
Lift of A -Dolichocephalic.
A-B Mesocephftlic.
Right of B -Brachycephallc.
i
A rs
fig . fOa.Pi//ayan.
Fig . 11 *. Thantapu/ay&n.
76
80
fig . 12 a.UHttan.
Lltho, Sww Office. TrivMdfum 194* A. 0/111S M . .
DISTRIBUTION of CEPHALIC INDEX
Scale / InchsslO cms. -
Ltffc of A -Dolichocephalic.
A-B -Mesacephalle.
Right of B -Brachycephalic,
65
70
95
Fig. 13*.UralL
.: I I
***
.::: ,|r?? .. ?.?.!?
75 80
65
70
Fig
75
. Vishwan
as
65
70
B ao
as
15 a.
Lilho, Survey Offct, Triv*ndrvw. 1930 A. 0/1119 M.
DISTRIBUTION of CEPHALIC INDEX
Seal* I Inch a 10 cms
Left of A -Dolichocephalic.
A-B -Hetoeephalic.
Bight of B -Brachycaphalio
G5
A
75
70 75 80
Fig. 16a.Sambav*r.
. I .: . I
ffl !
t ! !
65
70
76
Pig. 17 t.
BO
titho, Survey Off*, 7>f witfrtf/n. 1940 A. D/1115 M .
DISTRIBUTION of NASAL INDEX
Scale I Inch** 10 c/ns.
Left of A -Leptorhine.
A-B -XtttrUM.
Right of B -Platyrhine
65 70 75 80
a* so 95 100 105 no 11
F/l.U. /fan/Mar.
e 70 7% so
9S 100 105 flO It
Fig . 2b.Mt!ankurmn.
Trim*'**,
DISTRIBUTION of NASAL INDEX
Scale J InchxIO cms.
Left of A -Laptoj-Wne.
A-B -Hesorhine.
Right of B -Platyrhlne.
i ; : : : i ? y 1 1 r : : .* : i : : r : T . . . . t . . . . r
66 70 75 60 85 90 95 100 106 1fO
ftg.3lk.Ma/apantaram.
i t L .If i i i i i . i . 1 1 i . it .| . < * ' i ' ? t i i . . * . i i i > . i t i i i i
A B
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 fOO T05 MO
Fig , 4 b . Af a/apt/ fayafl*
i .;.... ,
65 70 TS 90 95 90 95 100 105 110
<
I
* * I
63 70 76 80 ^5 90 95 100 105 HO
Fig . 6b. Mulwetan.
Utho, Sumy Office, Trivandru/n. 1949 A. 0/111* M . .
DISTRIBUTION of NASAL INDEX
Scab I lnch^/0 cms.
Ltfft of a -l*ptorhlne.
A-B -Mboorhint.
Right of B -PUtyrhlna.
t : : . : i ::::;::
63 >0 75 60 "SS 90 99 100 I OS HO
Fig . 7 b . Wa/ayarayaif.
t . . . . i * * ! ? 7 \ \ \
65 70 75 80 1$ 90 95 100 105 110
Fig. Bb. Mvthuvw.
- -\
. . *. : i , : : , g : . ; tl: ? ? ? i : : ? . i . . t . i . . . . i . . . . i
65 70 75 80 0S 90 95 tOO 100 tfO
Fig.9b.
i ". . . .1.^1
$5 70 75 80 69 90 9S MO 10S 110
FJg.lOb. Pu/ayan.
LHhQ, Sumy Office. TriYtndrum. WQA. D/1116 M .
DISTRIBUTION of NASAL INDEX
Scale I /flc*=/0 ems.
Left of A -Uptorhine.
A-B -Mesorhine.
Right of 3 -PUtyrhine
f
F - :
'
75 80 E
35
90
95
100 JOB 110
fig. 11 b. r/wntepufayan.
A
70
75
SO
95
F/g .
65 70 75 80 BS 90 95 100 <OS 110
Fig . 13 6
Litho, Sumy Office, Trinndrm 19 MA. D/HI* M . .
DISTRIBUTION of NASAL INDEX
Scale / Inch* /O cms,
Left of A -Leptorhioc.
&"B -Maorhine.
WgM of B -Platyrhine.
6V 70 75 BO 85 90 95 100 <OS MO
90 99 tOO 105 110